The multi-ethnic confederacy Sarmatian confederacy of western Scythia, warlike nomadic pastoralists of varied backgrounds mentioned by classical authors from Herodotus onward, have by 150 BCE divided into three nations: the Alans, an Iranian people, to the East, living near the Sea of Azov; …

…the Roxolani, believed to be an offshoot of the Alans, between the Don and Dnieper Rivers; and …

…the Iazyges, or Jazyges, or Iazygians, of the lower Dnieper, in the steppes of what is now Ukraine.

The Middle East: 64–75 CE

Parthian Cultural Revival and Roman Diplomacy

The reign of Vologases I of the Parthian Empire marks a deliberate departure from the Hellenistic influences that had permeated the region since Alexander’s conquests. Vologases spearheads a significant cultural revival, reasserting traditional Iranian customs and reintroducing ancient Persian traditions rooted in the Achaemenid dynasty. As part of this deliberate policy, he restores original Iranian names to cities previously renamed by Greek rulers, underscoring his commitment to Iran’s native heritage.

In a move of profound cultural significance, Vologases commissions the collection and preservation of the ancient Avestan texts, fundamental scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion. Coins minted under his authority depict fire temples, emphasizing his devotion to the traditional Persian religion—a symbolic tradition sustained throughout the subsequent Sassanian dynasty.

Vologases also demonstrates considerable initiative as an urban planner and builder. He establishes the city of Vologesocerta (variously known as Balashkert, Balashgerd, or Balashkard), strategically located near the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, in an effort to draw residents away from the Hellenistic stronghold of Seleucia on the Tigris. He further founds the city of Vologesias, situated near a canal branching from the Euphrates River south of Babylon, close to the future site of Hirah.

Diplomatic relations between Parthia and Rome remain cordial under Vologases, exemplified by his offer of 40,000 Parthian archers to the Roman Emperor Vespasian to support him in his conflict against Vitellius. However, relations are later tested when the Alans, a powerful nomadic tribe from beyond the Caucasus, invade Media and Armenia. Vologases’ plea for assistance from Vespasian is denied, reflecting the pragmatic limits of Roman support.

Despite Vologases’ considerable efforts, Parthia struggles to regain control of lost territories in its eastern dominions. The kingdom of Hyrcania, in particular, maintains its autonomy, signaling the continued fragility and complexity of Parthian political control.

Dioscorides and the Legacy of Medical Knowledge

This era is also notable for the enduring contributions of Pedanius Dioscorides, a physician from Anazarbus in Cilicia, Asia Minor, who compiles his seminal work De Materia Medica between 50 and 70 CE. Written in Greek, this comprehensive five-volume treatise meticulously documents drugs of plant, animal, and mineral origin, providing detailed descriptions of their dosage, application, and medicinal properties. It becomes the foremost medical reference across both the Greco-Roman and Islamic worlds, continuously used and referenced for over 1,500 years.

Notably, Dioscorides recognizes the association between zinc ores and brass production, observing the mineral cadmia (zinc oxide) deposited in metal-smelting furnaces. His documentation preserves not only medical and botanical knowledge but also historical linguistic records, including rare Dacian and Thracian plant names that might otherwise have been lost to history.

Thus, the era from 64 to 75 CE sees significant cultural realignment under Parthian rule, alongside the establishment of a lasting scientific and medicinal legacy through Dioscorides’ influential writings.

The reign of Vologases I of Parthia, ruler of the Parthian Empire, is marked by a decided reaction against Hellenism.

He is influential in reverting Hellenization by returning to Iranian customs and traditions of the Achamenids’ time.

He reverts the Greek names of Iranian cities to Iranian names.

According to Zoroastrian texts, Vologases ordered the collection of the ancient Avestan texts.

On some of his coins a fire temple can be seen; this tradition will continue for several hundred years to the end of the Sassanian dynasty.

He builds cities, including Vologesocerta (Balashkert or Balashgerd or Balashkard, literally Balash built it) in the neighborhood of Ctesiphon, with the intention of drawing to this new town the inhabitants of Seleucia on the Tigris.

Another town founded by him is Vologesias on a canal of the Euphrates, south of Babylon (near Hirah).

Vologases has good relations with Vespasian, to whom he offers an army of forty thousand archers in the war against Vitellius.

Soon afterwards the Alans, a great nomadic tribe beyond the Caucasus, invade Media and Armenia; Vologases applies in vain for help to Vespasian.

It appears that the Persian losses in the east also cannot be repaired; Hyrcania remains an independent kingdom.

East Central Europe (100–243 CE): Roman Frontier Stability, Germanic Confederations, and Tribal Realignments

Between 100 and 243 CE, East Central Europe—covering Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and those portions of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line stretching from roughly 48.2°N at 10°E southeastward to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—experienced relative stability on the Roman frontier, coupled with significant internal transformations among Germanic tribes and other regional groups. This period featured the rise and consolidation of influential tribal confederations, interactions between Romans and Germanic populations, and a dynamic political landscape involving tribes like the Vandals (Asdingi and Silingi), Boii, Langobardi (Lombards), Saxons, Thuringians, Hermunduri, Rugi, Alans, and proto-Slavic tribes such as the Carpi.

Political and Military Developments

Roman Frontier Consolidation: Noricum and Pannonia

• Roman provinces along the Danube frontier—particularly Noricum (modern Austria) and Pannonia (modern western Hungary, eastern Austria, Slovakia)—experienced a period of stability under emperors such as Trajan (98–117 CE), Hadrian (117–138 CE), and Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE).

• Roman military installations, roads, and fortified towns stabilized regional trade and provided security along the frontier zone, influencing local economic and social dynamics.

Germanic Tribal Confederations and Power Dynamics

• The Marcomanni and Quadi tribes consolidated power within territories including modern Czechia, Slovakia, and southern Poland, emerging as significant regional entities and frequently interacting—both peacefully and militarily—with Roman authorities.

• The Langobardi (Lombards) migrated southward toward the middle Danube region, establishing settlements in modern eastern Austria and western Slovakia, increasing their influence.

• The Boii, once prominent in Bohemia, saw their power diminish further under pressure from more powerful Germanic tribes, particularly the Marcomanni, with many integrating into new tribal structures or migrating elsewhere.

Emergence and Movements of Vandals, Saxons, Thuringians, and Hermunduri

• The Vandals—divided into two distinct branches, the Asdingi and Silingi—inhabited territories of present-day Poland and Czechia, gradually moving southward and westward, responding to growing demographic pressures and tribal competition.

• In modern eastern Germany, new confederations such as the Saxons, Thuringians, and Hermunduri emerged and began to shape local power dynamics and trade networks.

Rugi and Alans in the Regional Landscape

• The Rugi tribe, situated in modern Austria, Slovakia, and Hungary, engaged in frequent interactions with Roman authorities along the frontier provinces, balancing trade and periodic conflict.

• The Iranian-speaking Alans entered into alliances with local Germanic tribes, bringing additional military strength and cultural elements to the complex regional environment.

Economic and Technological Developments

Roman Economic Integration

• Roman economic influence profoundly shaped local economies along the Danube, with extensive trade networks exchanging Roman goods such as coins, pottery, glassware, textiles, and luxury items for regional resources like amber, livestock, grain, and iron products.

• Roman infrastructure (roads, bridges, forts) significantly enhanced regional commerce and communication.

Technological Innovation and Exchange

• Regional tribes adopted and adapted Roman technological innovations in agriculture, ironworking, construction, and pottery production, enhancing productivity and facilitating economic integration.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Roman-Germanic Cultural Exchange

• Extensive interactions between Roman and Germanic groups fostered vibrant cultural exchanges. Roman influences appeared in local craftsmanship, pottery styles, and metalwork, blending with existing Germanic traditions to create distinctive regional styles.

Artistic Expressions Among Diverse Tribes

• Tribes such as the Vandals, Langobardi, Saxons, Thuringians, Hermunduri, Rugi, and Alans each contributed unique artistic traditions, visible in jewelry, weaponry, and ceramics, reflecting complex intertribal exchanges and cultural diversity.

Settlement and Urban Development

Roman Frontier Settlements and Towns

• Roman towns and military camps along the frontier, notably in Noricum and Pannonia, flourished as centers of trade, administration, and cultural exchange, reinforcing Roman control and influence.

Tribal Villages and Settlements

• Germanic and proto-Slavic tribes developed stable agricultural villages, often clustered around fortified sites or strategic locations near resources. These settlements formed the basis of long-term settlement patterns, fostering economic self-sufficiency and localized social structures.

Social and Religious Developments

Germanic Tribal Society and Leadership

• Tribal confederations like the Marcomanni, Quadi, Vandals, and Langobardi developed increasingly sophisticated leadership hierarchies, supported by elite warriors and chieftains whose authority rested on military strength, trade control, and diplomatic alliances.

Religious Practices and Syncretism

• Germanic religious traditions persisted, emphasizing ancestral worship, sacred groves, and communal rituals. Increasing contact with Romans also introduced new religious ideas and practices, creating syncretic blends of Roman and Germanic religious elements.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The age from 100 to 243 CE was pivotal for East Central Europe, marked by Roman frontier stability and the rise of influential tribal confederations like the Marcomanni, Quadi, Vandals, Langobardi, Saxons, Thuringians, Hermunduri, Rugi, and Alans. Economic integration and cultural exchange with Rome profoundly influenced regional development, technological innovation, and social structures. These complex interactions laid essential groundwork for subsequent migrations, transformations, and cultural diversification, significantly shaping East Central Europe's later historical trajectory.

Tribal Geography of East Central Europe, ca. 100–243 CE

During the period from 100 to 243 CE, East Central Europe—encompassing present-day Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Czechia, and eastern parts of Germany and Austria east of 10°E and northeast of the previously defined boundary—was inhabited by a diverse array of tribes and peoples. Their distribution significantly influenced interactions with the Roman Empire, internal migrations, and regional dynamics.

Tribes Within or Adjacent to East Central Europe:

• Hermunduri: Settled primarily in modern Thuringia and eastern Germany, directly interacting with Roman frontier provinces, especially Noricum.

• Semnones: A subgroup of the Suebi located mainly in present-day Brandenburg and Saxony-Anhalt (east-central Germany), bordering the northwestern boundary of the region.

• Lemovii (Lemovi): Occupied territories along the lower Oder river, corresponding to parts of modern-day northwestern Poland and northeastern Germany, near the region’s northern periphery.

• Rugi: Initially established along the Baltic coast, in modern Western Pomerania (northeastern Germany and northwestern Poland); would later migrate southward toward modern Austria.

• Vandals (Asdingi and Silingi): Prominent Germanic tribes settled primarily in central and southern areas of present-day Poland and Silesia. The Silingi lent their name to the region known as Silesia.

• Sciri: A smaller Germanic group inhabiting northern parts of present-day Poland, likely near the lower Vistula basin.

• Carpi: Early Slavic or proto-Slavic group situated around the eastern Carpathian region (eastern Slovakia, western Ukraine, and northern Romania), influencing the region’s eastern margins.

• Taurisci: A Celtic tribe closely associated with the Roman province of Noricum, located in modern Austria and Slovenia; largely absorbed into Roman provincial culture by this period.

• Iazyges: Nomadic Sarmatian tribe settled prominently in the Hungarian Plain (between the Danube and Tisza rivers), frequently interacting (often in conflict) with Roman Pannonia.

• Venedae (Veneti or Venedi): Associated with early Slavic or Baltic groups occupying territories within modern-day central-eastern Poland, Belarus, and possibly western Ukraine, central to the region’s northern and eastern territories.

Tribes Located Immediately Outside or to the West:

• Alamanni: Germanic tribes initially forming along the Upper Rhine, southwest of East Central Europe, in modern southwestern Germany, Alsace, and northern Switzerland.

• Saxons: Occupied territories primarily to the northwest, in modern-day Lower Saxony and northern Germany, just beyond the northwestern boundary of East Central Europe.

Historical Significance:

The geographical distribution and interactions among these tribes deeply shaped the social, economic, and military landscape of East Central Europe throughout this period. Their shifting alliances, migrations, and trade relations significantly influenced the development of Roman frontier provinces (Noricum, Pannonia Superior, and Pannonia Inferior), laying important foundations for later historical developments, migrations, and cultural transformations.

(Please refer to the accompanying map for visual reference and clarification of tribal locations.)

Arrian, born of Greek ethnicity in the coastal town of Nicomedia (present-day Izmit), the capital of the Roman province of Bithynia, in what is now northwestern Turkey, about seventy kilometers from Byzantium (later Constantinople, now Istanbul), had studied philosophy in Nicopolis in Epirus, under the Stoic philosopher Epictetus, and had written two books about the philosopher's teachings.

At the same time he had entered the Imperial service, and served as a junior adviser on the consilium of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, governor of Achaea and a close friend of the future Emperor Hadrian, around 111-114.

Very little is known about his subsequent career—though it is probable that he served in Gaul and on the Danube frontier, and possible that he was in Baetica and Parthia—until he held the office of Consul in 129 or 130.

In 131, he had been appointed governor of the Black Sea province of Cappadocia and commander of the Roman legions on the frontier with Armenia.

It is unusual at this time for a Greek to hold such high military command.

As the Empire's north-easternmost province, Cappadocia, which also incorporates the regions of Pontus and Armenia Minor, hosts a permanent military garrison of two legions and several Auxiliary troops.

In 135, Cappadocia is threatened by an Alan invasion.

Arrian will later write a military treatise called Ektaxis kata Alanōn, which details the battle against the Alans, and the Technē Taktikē, in which he describes how he would organize the legions and auxiliary troops at his disposal, among which are legions XII Fulminata and XV Apollinaris.

He would deploy the legionaries in depth supported by javelin throwers, archers, and horse archers in the rear ranks to defeat the assault of the Alan cavalry using these combined arms tactics.

However, Arrian's work may have been entirely hypothetical, because there is no historical record of a battle between Romans and Alans in 135.

He also writes a short account of a tour of inspection of the Black Sea coast in the traditional 'periplus' form (in Greek) addressed to the Emperor Hadrian, the Periplus Ponti Euxini or "Circumnavigation of the Black Sea".

The legitimate successors of Pacorus II: Osroes I (105–116 and 117–129), Parthamaspates (116–117), and Mithridates IV (129–140), who ruled Mesopotamia, had been preoccupied by conflicts with the Romans, particularly the invasion by Roman emperor Trajan (98–117), and thus were unable to effectively challenge Vologases III.

Following the death of Osroes I, Vologases III had extended his rule through most of Parthia but had to contend with Mithridates IV, incursions of the nomadic Alans into Cappadocia, Armenia, and Media, and rebellion in Iran by an unknown usurper around 140.

The Parthian realm is finally reunited after Vologases III's death in 147 by Vologases IV (147–191), the son of his rival Mithridates IV.

Vologases III's Armenian kingship had been given to Sohaemus in 144, for unknown reasons.

East Central Europe (244–387 CE): Germanic Migrations, Sarmatian Presence, and the Roman Frontier in Crisis

Between 244 and 387 CE, East Central Europe—encompassing modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and those parts of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line stretching southeastward from approximately 48.2°N, 10°E to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—experienced profound demographic, political, and cultural transformations. This period was characterized by major migrations of Germanic and other tribes—including the Vandals (Asdingi and Silingi), Langobardi (Lombards), Boii, Saxons, Thuringians, Hermunduri, Rugi, Alans, and early proto-Slavic groups such as the Carpi and proto-Croats. Concurrently, an influential nomadic Sarmatian presence, primarily represented by tribes like the Iazyges and Alans, significantly impacted regional dynamics, while weakening Roman frontier control along the Danube profoundly affected stability, trade networks, and cultural interactions.

Political and Military Developments

Migrations of Vandals, Langobardi, and Alans

The Vandals, divided into the Asdingi and Silingi, significantly reshaped regional demographics and political alignments. Originating from territories in present-day Poland and Czechia, they migrated southward and westward under pressure from other tribes, eventually crossing into Roman territories.

The Langobardi (Lombards), initially settled along the lower Elbe, moved steadily southward toward modern-day Austria, Slovakia, and Hungary, becoming influential in regional power struggles and alliances.

The Iranian-speaking Alans, closely allied with the Vandals and representing a major component of the broader Sarmatian tribal confederation, also migrated westward through East Central Europe. Renowned for their skilled cavalry warfare, they notably influenced local military strategies and cultural interactions.

Sarmatian Presence and Influence

The Sarmatians, particularly the Iazyges who inhabited the plains of modern-day Hungary and adjacent areas, exerted considerable political and military influence during the 3rd and early 4th centuries CE. Their powerful cavalry posed significant challenges to Roman frontier defenses, leading to conflicts and diplomatic exchanges that shaped regional political structures.

Rugian Migration and Settlement Stability in Pannonia

Around the early 4th century, the Rugii migrated southward from their homeland in Pomerania, establishing stable settlements along the upper Tisza River in Roman-controlled Pannonia (northeastern Hungary). Their presence provided regional stability amidst widespread upheaval, influencing diplomatic relations and tribal interactions.

Tribal Confederations and Regional Realignments

The Boii, previously dominant in Bohemia (from whom the region derives its name), gradually lost influence due to pressure from migrating Germanic tribes, either assimilating locally or migrating westward.

The rise of tribal confederations, notably the Thuringians and Hermunduri in modern eastern Germany, altered regional trade networks and power balances significantly.

Gothic Migrations and the Battle of Adrianople (376–378 CE)

Major Gothic migrations, driven westward by Hunnic incursions, culminated in the mass crossing of the Danube frontier in 376 CE, destabilizing Roman provinces. The catastrophic defeat of Roman forces at the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE) further eroded Roman frontier control and triggered profound geopolitical shifts.

Decline of Roman Influence in Noricum and Pannonia

Roman provincial authority weakened dramatically in frontier provinces such as Pannonia and Noricum (modern Austria) due to continual raids by Germanic and Sarmatian groups, ultimately leading to reduced military presence and administrative withdrawal.

Economic and Technological Developments

Trade Disruptions and Economic Decentralization

Persistent frontier instability severely disrupted established trade connections between the Roman Empire and East Central Europe, driving regional economies toward greater agricultural self-sufficiency and decentralized metalworking industries.

Roman Infrastructure Restoration

Despite wider disruptions, Roman emperors such as Aurelian (270–275 CE), Diocletian (284–305 CE), Constantine the Great (306–337 CE), and Valentinian I (364–375 CE) periodically strengthened frontier defenses, revitalizing certain regional economic activities and infrastructure such as roads and fortifications.

Technological Continuity and Exchange

Local Germanic, Sarmatian, and proto-Slavic populations continued refining ironworking, pottery, and agricultural techniques, selectively adopting and adapting Roman technologies to maintain productivity despite political disruptions.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cross-Cultural Hybridization

Interaction among diverse groups—including Germanic tribes (Vandals, Lombards, Saxons, Thuringians, Hermunduri, Rugi), Iranian-speaking Alans and Sarmatians, Celtic remnants (Boii), and early Slavic populations—resulted in dynamic cultural exchanges and hybridization visible in linguistic developments, artistic traditions, and societal customs.

Sarmatian Artistic Influence

The Sarmatian tribes introduced distinctive artistic styles, especially evident in sophisticated metalwork featuring animal motifs and elaborate cavalry equipment, influencing regional artistic traditions profoundly. Sarmatian burial practices, notably kurgan-style graves with rich grave goods, underscore their cultural impact.

Proto-Slavic Cultural Resilience

Proto-Slavic tribes, such as the Carpi and proto-Croats, began emerging prominently, maintaining stable cultural and social structures despite pressures from migrating Gothic groups. Although some proto-Slavic segments migrated northward, integrating into Finnic-speaking populations, most retained traditional territories, reinforcing local cultural continuity.

Settlement and Urban Development

Decline of Roman Frontier Settlements

Roman urban and military outposts along the Danube frontier experienced widespread decline or abandonment following Gothic incursions, internal Roman weaknesses, and the fallout of the Battle of Adrianople.

Stability of Rugian Settlements

The Rugian settlements along the upper Tisza region maintained considerable stability and economic vibrancy even as adjacent Roman towns deteriorated, demonstrating resilience amid regional disruptions.

Emergence of Germanic and Proto-Slavic Villages

Germanic tribes and early Slavic groups increasingly developed dispersed agricultural settlements characterized by village clusters, timber longhouses, and protective earthworks, replacing earlier Celtic-Roman urbanized settlements.

Social and Religious Developments

Germanic Tribal Leadership and Social Structure

Germanic societies were structured around influential warrior aristocracies, whose leadership relied on military strength, control of trade routes, and diplomatic marriages and alliances.

Sarmatian Social Impact and Equestrian Traditions

Sarmatian nomadic society significantly influenced regional social hierarchies and military organization, particularly through their celebrated equestrian traditions, cavalry tactics, and leadership structures.

Religious Practices and Syncretism

Diverse tribal populations retained traditional religious beliefs—nature worship, ancestral veneration, communal rituals—while interactions between Germanic, Iranian (Alanic and Sarmatian), and Celtic cultures encouraged significant religious syncretism.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period 244–387 CE transformed East Central Europe profoundly, driven by intensified Germanic migrations, influential Sarmatian presence, weakening Roman frontier authority, and the catalytic Gothic invasions culminating in the Battle of Adrianople. The resulting demographic shifts, cultural hybridization, economic decentralization, and political realignments laid essential groundwork for the emergence of early medieval societies. Significantly, the Sarmatian legacy persisted, influencing regional military practices, artistic styles, and later cultural identities—most notably in the enduring cultural mythology adopted by the Polish nobility in subsequent centuries.