The eleventh and twelfth centuries witness the rise in Morocco of two rival Berber tribal dynasties—the Almoravids and the Almohads, both founded by religious reformers—that dominate the Maghreb and Muslim Spain for more than two hundred years.

The founder of the Almohad (literally, "one who proclaims" the oneness of God) movement is a member of the Sunni ulama, Ibn Tumart (d. 1130), who preaches a doctrine of moral regeneration through reaffirmation of monotheism.

As judge and political leader as well as spiritual director, Ibn Tumart gives the Almohads a hierarchical and theocratic centralized government, respecting but transcending the old tribal structure.

His successor, the sultan Abdal Mu'min (reigned 1130-63), subdues Morocco, extends the Muslim frontier in Spain, and by 1160 has swept eastward across the Maghreb and forced the withdrawal of the Normans from their strongholds in Ifriqiya and Tripolitania, which are added to the Almohad empire.

Mu'min had proclaimed an Almohad caliphate at Córdoba, giving the sultan supreme religious as well as political authority within his domains, but theology had gradually given way to dynastic politics as the motivating force behind the movement.

The Almohads had succeeded in unifying the Maghreb but, as its empire grew and the Almohad power base shifted to Spain, the dynasty has become more remote from the Berber tribes that had launched it.

By 1270 the Almohads in Morocco have succumbed to tribal warfare and in Spain to the steady advance of the Kingdom of Castile.

At the eastern end of the Almohad empire, the sultan leaves an autonomous viceroy whose office becomes hereditary in the line of Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs (reigned 1207-21), a descendant of one of Ibn Tumart's companions.

With the demise of the Almohad dynasty in Morocco, the Hafsids adopt the titles of caliph and sultan and consider themselves the Almohads' legitimate successors, keeping alive the memory of Ibn Tumart and the ideal of Maghrebi unity from their capital in Tunis.

After the death of Abu Bakr in 1087 and Ibn Tashfin in 1106, traditional rivalries among the Sanhaja and a new Muslim reformist conquest led by the Zenata Almohads (1133-63) destroys the Almoravid Empire.

For a short time, the Mauritanian Sanhaja dynasty of the Almoravid Empire controls a vast territory stretching from Spain to Senegal.

The unity established between Morocco and Mauritania during the Almoravid period will continue to have some political importance in the 1980s, as it forms part of the basis for Morocco's claims to Mauritania, but the greatest contribution of the Sanhaja and the Almoravids is the Islamization of the western Maghreb.

This process will remain a dominant factor in the history of the area for the next several centuries.

Southwest Europe (1108 – 1251 CE): Iberian Reconquest and the Mediterranean Crown

Between 1108 and 1251 CE, Southwest Europe—stretching from the Pyrenees to Sicily and from the Atlantic to the Adriatic—entered an age of expansion and maritime integration.
The Crown of Aragon united Catalonia’s merchants with Iberia’s crusading frontier; Portugal secured its independence; Castile and León advanced across the Meseta; and Frederick II’s Sicily became the intellectual and administrative jewel of the Mediterranean.
Across these realms, irrigation, shipbuilding, and law combined to create the foundations of Europe’s first commercial empires.

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Geographic and Environmental Context

Southwest Europe joined the western Mediterranean with the Atlantic façade—a continuum of mountain valleys, river basins, and maritime corridors.

• Mediterranean sphere: Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, Provence’s western marches, and the islands of the Balearics, Sardinia, and Sicily.

• Atlantic sphere: Portugal, Galicia, León, Castile, Navarre, and the Basque coast.

The Ebro, Guadalquivir, and Douro rivers served as inland arteries, while the Strait of Gibraltar linked the Atlantic to the Mediterranean.
This geography united irrigated gardens, vine terraces, and maritime forests into a single, resource-rich ecosystem that fueled both agrarian and naval growth.

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Climate and Environmental Shifts

The Medieval Warm Period provided stability, though droughts periodically stressed Iberian interiors.

• Irrigation in Valencia, Murcia, and Sicily countered dryness, sustaining year-round cultivation.

• Atlantic coasts remained temperate and wet, supporting fisheries and viticulture.

• Forests of the Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges supplied timber for expanding shipyards.
  Regional diversity fostered complementary economies—cereals and sugar in the south, wine and wool in the north, and maritime exports along both coasts.

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Societies and Political Developments

Aragon and the Western Mediterranean:
The Crown of Aragon emerged in 1137 from the union of Aragon and Barcelona, forming a powerful maritime polity.
Its kings extended dominion over Catalonia, Roussillon, and by 1229–1235, the Balearic Islands; Valencia fell in 1238 after the decisive Christian victory at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) broke Almohad strength.
Andorra remained under Catalan suzerainty.
Aragonese fleets reached Sardinia, while Barcelona became a hub of Mediterranean credit and commerce.

Portugal and the Atlantic Kingdoms:
Afonso I (r. 1139–1185) achieved independence from León, securing Lisbon (1147) and the Algarve by the 1240s.
Royal charters (for Lisbon, Coimbra, Porto) encouraged merchant autonomy and agricultural colonization.
Portugal’s stable frontiers and coastal wealth established it as Europe’s first enduring Atlantic monarchy.

Castile, León, and Navarre:
Alternating unions and separations between Castile and León defined 12th-century politics; kings Alfonso VII and Alfonso VIII expanded southward into Toledo and La Mancha.
Frontier towns like Madrid, Salamanca, and Burgos became centers of law and trade.
Navarre maintained independence as a Pyrenean crown; Basque valleys retained their fueros (local charters) and self-governing institutions.

The Almohads and al-Andalus:
The Almohad Caliphate replaced the Almoravids in the early 12th century, revitalizing Islamic scholarship and urban life in Seville, Córdoba, and Granada.
Despite Almohad reformism, internal divisions weakened resistance; after 1212, Muslim rule contracted to Granada, which survived as a tributary emirate.
Urban irrigation systems and craftsmanship in Andalusia and Valencia influenced Christian urban economies long after conquest.

Sicily and the Hohenstaufen Empire:
Under Frederick II (r. 1197–1250), Sicily became the Mediterranean’s most advanced polity.
From Palermo, the emperor codified law (the Constitutions of Melfi, 1231), founded universities, and patronized Arabic, Greek, and Latin scholarship.
Sardinia drew Aragonese interest, while Malta remained a Sicilian outpost controlling Mediterranean sea lanes.
Frederick’s court epitomized cultural fusion—where Muslim science, Latin administration, and Norman architecture met.

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Economy and Trade

Agrarian and Industrial Production:

• Irrigated estates (huertas) of Valencia, Murcia, and Sicily produced sugar, rice, citrus, and silk.

• Castile and León supplied wool and grain to northern markets.

• Portugal’s Minho and Douro valleys cultivated vineyards; fisheries at the Algarve and Galicia sustained Atlantic trade.

• Basque ironworks and shipyards produced anchors, nails, and ocean-ready hulls.

Trade and Commerce:

• Mediterranean: Venice, Genoa, and Pisa dominated Levantine routes, while Barcelona and Valencia expanded in western circuits.

• Atlantic: Lisbon, Porto, and Cantabrian ports traded wine, salt fish, and timber with England, Brittany, and Flanders.

• Sicily and Apulia exported grain and sugar to Italy; Andalusian ports exported textiles, fruit, and ceramics.
  Notarial contracts, maritime insurance, and public shipyards standardized economic exchange across the region.

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Belief and Symbolism

Christian–Islamic Convergence:
The frontier of Iberia was both battlefield and bridge.
Crusading ideology sanctified conquest, while Islamic architecture, science, and agriculture profoundly influenced Christian society.
Cathedral building in Toledo, Valencia, and Burgos echoed both Gothic and Moorish design.

Frederick II’s Rational Court:
In Palermo, Greek and Arabic scholars translated Aristotle and Euclid; falconry, astronomy, and law flourished under imperial patronage.
His court symbolized a Mediterranean humanism centuries ahead of its time.

Pilgrimage and Devotion:
The Camino de Santiago united Iberia’s kingdoms spiritually and commercially, sustaining Santiago de Compostela as a pan-European shrine.
Monastic orders—the Cistercians, Knights of Calatrava, and Orders of Santiago and Aviz—defended and colonized the frontiers.

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Subsistence and Technology

• Irrigation systems (qanats and acequias) revitalized agriculture in Aragon and al-Andalus.

• Hydraulic mills and riverine warehouses improved grain processing.

• Basque and Portuguese shipyards refined stern rudders and clinker hulls, precursors to oceanic vessels.

• Portolan charts and magnetic compasses circulated through Italian pilots.

• Architectural innovation: coral masonry in Sicily, ribbed vaulting in Iberia, and civic loggias in Aragonese ports.

Technology bound rural production to maritime ambition, transforming the peninsula into a laboratory of navigation and law.

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Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Mediterranean sea-lanes: Barcelona ⇄ Marseille ⇄ Genoa ⇄ Palermo ⇄ Alexandria.

• Atlantic routes: Lisbon ⇄ Bristol ⇄ Flanders ⇄ Bordeaux.

• Inland arteries: Ebro, Douro, and Guadalquivir rivers connecting highland farms to seaports.

• Pyrenean and Rhône passes: Catalonia and Provence’s gateways to France and Italy.

• Straits and narrows: Messina, Otranto, and Gibraltar—the gateways of empire.

These corridors bound the region into Europe’s dual maritime economy: Mediterranean and Atlantic.

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Adaptation and Resilience

• Irrigation and terrace farming stabilized food production under variable rainfall.

• Urban autonomy and municipal charters balanced royal power with local initiative.

• Maritime diversification (Atlantic and Mediterranean fleets) buffered commerce from political upheavals.

• Cross-cultural exchange—Muslim science, Christian law, and Jewish finance—enriched statecraft and learning.
  Resilience in this region stemmed from adaptability: an ability to absorb, reform, and synthesize across faiths, climates, and seas.

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Long-Term Significance

By 1251 CE, Southwest Europe had become Europe’s hinge between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean:

• Aragon anchored a western maritime empire; Barcelona and Valencia rose as centers of trade and law.

• Portugal emerged as an independent Atlantic kingdom with enduring stability.

• Castile and León consolidated the Meseta, preparing for Andalusian conquest.

• Sicily, under Frederick II, stood as a beacon of learning and centralization.

• Venice and Genoa extended their reach into Iberian and Maghrebi waters.

Here, the fusion of Islamic irrigation, Latin legalism, and nautical science forged the intellectual and technological foundations for Europe’s coming age of exploration.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1108 – 1251 CE): Almohads, Aragon’s Union, and Hohenstaufen Sicily

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Productive regimes persisted with localized dryness in Iberia; irrigation buffered Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, Sicily.

Societies and Political Developments

• Crown of Aragon (union 1137 of Aragon and Barcelona) expanded into Catalonia, Roussillon, and the Balearics’ approaches; Andorra remained within Catalan orbit.

• Almohads superseded Almoravids in al-Andalus; Christian advances paused until Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) opened the Guadalquivir. Valencia (1238) and the Balearics (1229–1235) fell to King James I.

• Portugal consolidated Algarve and Alentejo frontiers; Castile/León held Toledo and pushed La Mancha; Madrid grew as a frontier town.

• Hohenstaufen Sicily under Frederick II (r. 1197–1250) centralized law and science; Sardinia drew Aragonese interest; Venice led Adriatic power and eastern ventures.

• Malta attached to the Sicilian crown.

Economy and Trade

• Venice, Genoa, Pisa dominated Levantine–western circuits; Barcelona–Valencia fleets grew in western routes.

• Sicily/Apulia exported grain, sugar, and citrus; Andalusia/Valencia irrigated gardens sustained urban markets; Algarve fisheries and salt fed Atlantic–Mediterranean trade.

Subsistence and Technology

• Hydraulic estates in al-Andalus and Sicily; notarial–credit instruments in Italian and Catalan cities; communal shipyards standardized galleys.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Rhône–Ligurian pivot into Genoa and Venice; Ebro–Pyrenees to Barcelona; Guadalquivir/Segura/Turiariver basins supplied Seville–Valencia ports; Strait of Messina and Otranto gates for Sicilian–Italian flows.

Belief and Symbolism

• Almohad reformism; Latin cathedral building—Burgos (nearby, outside core) influenced Toledo, Valencia; Frederick II’s court culture blended Arabic–Latin–Greek learning; crusading mobilizations flowed through Italian/Iberian ports.

Long-Term Significance

By 1251, Aragon anchored a western thalassocracy; Venice led the Adriatic; Frederick II’s Sicily structured the central Med; Iberia’s Christian kingdoms were poised for decisive 13th-century gains.

The eleventh-century taifas, weakened by their disunity, had fallen piecemeal to the Castilians, who had reason to anticipate the completion of the Reconquest.

When Toledo was lost in 1085, the alarmed amirs had appealed for aid to the Almoravids, a militant Berber party of strict Muslims, who in a few years had won control of the Maghreb (northwest Africa).

The Almoravids had incorporated all of Al Andalus, except Zaragoza, into their North African empire.

They had attempted to stimulate a religious revival based on their own evangelical brand of Islam.

In Spain, however, their movement had soon lost its missionary fervor.

The Almoravid state has fallen apart by the mid-twelfth century under pressure from another religious group, the Almohads, who extend their control from Morocco to Spain and make Seville their capital.

The Almohads share the crusading instincts of the Almoravids and pose an even greater military threat to the Christian states, but their expansion is stopped decisively in the epic battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), a watershed in the history of the Reconquest.

Muslim strength ebbs hereafter.

Ferdinand III takes Seville in 1248, reducing Al Andalus to the emirate of Granada, which had bought its safety by betraying the Almohads' Spanish capital.

Granada remains a Muslim state, but as a dependency of Castile.

The Final Stages of the Portuguese Reconquista (1185–1249 CE)

The Portuguese Reconquista progresses under the successive reigns of Sancho I, Afonso II, Sancho II, and Afonso III, gradually pushing the Muslim frontier southward until Portugal reaches its modern territorial limits.

Sancho I (r. 1185–1211) and Early Southern Campaigns

As the son and heir of Afonso Henriques, Sancho I continues his father’s military campaigns, expanding Portuguese control in the Algarve:

• 1189 – Sancho captures the castle at Alvor, the city of Silves, and the castle at Albufeira.
• However, these territories are soon retaken by the Muslims, requiring future monarchs to reconquer them.

Afonso II (r. 1211–1223) and the Battle of Navas de Tolosa

Sancho I’s son, Afonso II, launches new campaigns in the Alentejo, with the support of his brother-in-law, Alfonso VIII of Castile:

• 1212 – Afonso II participates in the Battle of Navas de Tolosa, a decisive Christian victory that weakens Muslim power in Iberia.
• 1217 – He takes part in the siege and conquest of Alcácer do Sal, one of the largest strongholds in the Alentejo.

Sancho II (r. 1223–1248) and the Algarve Campaigns

Under Sancho II, the Reconquista advances into the Algarve, where major battles take place:

• 1238 – His forces defeat Muslim armies at Tavira and Cacela, further expanding Portuguese control southward.

Afonso III (r. 1248–1279) and the Final Conquest

The final stage of the Reconquista occurs under Afonso III, who:

• 1249 – Launches a campaign against the last Muslim enclave in the Algarve, capturing Faro and securing Portugal’s southern coastline.

This last battle officially completes the Portuguese Reconquista, defining the territorial boundaries of Portugal, which have remained largely unchanged ever since.

 

North Africa (1108 – 1251 CE): Almohads, Marinids, and Hafsids

Geographic and Environmental Context

North Africa includes the Maghreb littoral and inland from modern Morocco through Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya (west of Egypt and the Nile). It also includes Western Sahara.

• Anchors: the Atlas Mountains, Tell coastlands, Sahara fringes, and Ifriqiya (Tunisia–eastern Algeria–western Libya).

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The Medieval Warm Period gave way to early variability (~1200s).

• Agriculture persisted but faced localized stress.

Societies and Political Developments

• Almohad dynasty (1130–1269): Masmuda Berber reformers, based in Marrakesh; replaced Almoravids; ruled Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and al-Andalus.

• Almohad caliphs centralized power, promoted reformist Islam, and built monumental mosques.

• After Almohad decline (mid-13th c.), successor states emerged:

  • Marinids in Morocco,

  • Zayyanids (Abd al-Wadids) in Tlemcen (Algeria),

  • Hafsids in Ifriqiya (Tunisia, 1229).

Economy and Trade

• Agriculture: wheat, olives, fruits in Atlas valleys and plains.

• Trade: trans-Saharan gold from Mali empires; Mediterranean commerce with Genoa, Pisa, Venice.

• Urban centers: Marrakesh, Fez, Tunis, Tlemcen.

Belief and Symbolism

• Almohads: imposed strict monotheist reform.

• Scholarship: Fez, Marrakesh, Tunis centers of Maliki law and Sufism.

Long-Term Significance

By 1251, Almohad unity had fractured into Hafsid, Marinid, and Zayyanid states, each integrating into Mediterranean and trans-Saharan systems.

The zenith of Almohad power coincides with the rule of Abd al Mumin's Abu Yaqub Yusuf (r. 1163–84) and grandson Yaqub al Mansur (r. 1184–99).

The Maghreb is united under a local regime for the first time, and although the empire is troubled by conflict on its fringes, handcrafts and agriculture flourish at its center and an efficient bureaucracy fills the tax coffers.

In 1229, the Almohad court renounces the teachings of Ibn Tumart, opting instead for greater tolerance of opposing views.

As evidence of this change, the Almohads host two of the greatest thinkers of Andalus: Abu Bakr ibn Tufail and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).