Ambrones

The Catastrophic Flooding of the Zuider Zee and the Migration of the Cimbri, Teutons, and Ambrones

The Zuider Zee region experienced catastrophic salt-water flooding, transforming the once marginally habitable coastline into an unstable and sinking landscape. This area, which had remained barely above sea level for much of human history, was now gradually submerging, forcing local populations to adapt or relocate.

The Migration of the Cimbri, Teutons, and Ambrones

• The Cimbri, Teutons, and Ambrones formed an alliance and began migrating southward, seeking new landsto settle.

• Their movement marked the beginning of their appearance in Roman history, as they encountered and later clashed with Rome.

• According to the Roman historian Lucius Annaeus Florus, in The Epitome of Roman History (Book I, Part 38):

  "The Cimbri, Teutones and Tigurini, fugitives from the extreme parts of Gaul, since the Ocean had inundated their territories, began to seek new settlement throughout the world."

• While the exact cause of their migration is debated, ancient sources attribute their movement to environmental catastrophes, particularly severe flooding and rising sea levels in their homeland.

Historical and Environmental Context

• The flooding of the Zuider Zee may have been linked to climatic shifts, such as rising sea levels and storm surges, which could have destabilized coastal settlements.
• The migration of these Germanic and Celtic tribes contributed to one of the greatest military challenges faced by the late Roman Republic, culminating in the Cimbrian War (113–101 BCE).
• Their attempted migration southward disrupted territorial stability in Gaul, influencing subsequent Germanic expansions into the Roman world.

Legacy of the Zuider Zee Flooding and the Cimbrian Migration

• The Zuider Zee’s environmental instability foreshadowed long-term struggles with flooding in the Low Countries, ultimately leading to medieval and modern Dutch land reclamation efforts.
• The Cimbrian and Teutonic migrations set a precedent for later Germanic incursions, influencing the larger migratory movements of the 4th and 5th centuries CE that contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Thus, natural disasters and climate instability played a crucial role in shaping historical migrations and conflicts, demonstrating how environmental change could drive mass movements of people with lasting consequences for European history.

The longsword-wielding Cimbri had left their original lands around the Baltic sea in the Jutland peninsula and Southern Scandinavia for unknown reasons (possibly due to climate change), sometime around 120–115 BCE.

Journeying to the southeast, they were soon joined by their neighbors and possible relatives the Teutones.

Together they had defeated the Scordisci, along with the Boii, many of whom have apparently joined them.

They arrive in 113 BCE on the Danube, in Noricum, home to the Roman-allied Taurisci, who, unable to hold back these new, powerful invaders on their own, call on Rome for aid.

The Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo in 112 BCE leads the legions into Noricum, and after making an impressive show of force, takes up a strong defensive position on the heights near Aquileiaa nd demands that the Cimbri and their allies should leave the province immediately.

The Cimbri initially set about complying peacefully with Rome's demands, but soon discover that Carbo has laid an ambush against them.

Infuriated by this treachery, they attack and, at the Battle of Noreia, annihilate Carbo's army, almost killing Carbo in the process.

Carbo manages to escape with his life and the remnants of his army (though the Germanic tribesmen had erroneously thought and boasted that they had caught and slain their betrayer).

He is disgraced and impeached as consul by the senate, but is not exiled (such punishment was rare among the Romans according to Nate Rosenstein, in Imperatores Victi).

Italy is now open to invasion and Rome prepares for the worst, but instead the Cimbri and Teutones head west, towards Gaul.

The Cimbri and Their Allies in Gaul: Victory Over the Romans in Gallia Narbonensis (109 BCE)

After their victory over the Romans at Noreia (113 BCE), the Cimbri and their allied tribes, including the Teutons and Ambrones, turned westward, moving into Gallia Narbonensis (modern southern France). Their migratory push into Roman-controlled territory led to another clash with the Roman Republic.

The Battle Against Marcus Junius Silanus (109 BCE)

• In 109 BCE, the Cimbri encountered a Roman force under Consul Marcus Junius Silanus, who had been sent to halt their advance in Gallia Narbonensis.
• The Roman army suffered a decisive defeat, further shaking Roman confidence and exposing the vulnerability of the Republic’s northern frontiers.
• This second major victory for the Cimbri over Rome fueled their reputation as a formidable migratory force, intensifying fears of a barbarian invasion.

Aftermath and Strategic Impact

• Following their victory, the Cimbri did not immediately march on Italy, but instead continued their movement through Gaul, raiding settlements and searching for a permanent homeland.
• Their success against Rome at Noreia (113 BCE) and Gallia Narbonensis (109 BCE) demonstrated their superior mobility, battlefield tactics, and ability to challenge Roman legions.
• The defeats led to Roman military reforms and the eventual rise of Gaius Marius, who would later face the Cimbri and Teutonic threat in a decisive series of battles.

This phase of the Cimbrian migration marked a critical turning point in Roman history, setting the stage for one of the Republic’s greatest military crises and the military-political transformations that followed.

The Cimbri and Their Allies Defeat Rome Again at Burdigala (107 BCE)

Following their victories at Noreia (113 BCE) and in Gallia Narbonensis (109 BCE), the Cimbri and their allied tribes continued their campaign of destruction in Roman territory. In 107 BCE, they clashed with another Roman army at Burdigala (modern Bordeaux), dealing the Republic another devastating defeat.

The Battle of Burdigala and the Death of Gaius Cassius Longinus Ravilla

• The Roman consul Gaius Cassius Longinus Ravilla led a military campaign against the Cimbri and their allies, seeking to halt their advances in southern Gaul.
• At Burdigala (modern Bordeaux), the Roman forces were decisively defeated, with Longinus himself killed in battle.
• This marked yet another catastrophic loss for Rome, demonstrating its inability to contain the Cimbrian threat.

Consequences of the Defeat

• The Roman Senate and military leadership were in crisis, as the Republic had now suffered three major defeats against the Cimbri and Teutons within just six years (113–107 BCE).
• The continued military failures in Gaul fueled panic in Rome, leading to calls for military reform and new leadership.
• The Cimbri, however, did not immediately invade Italy, instead continuing their movements through Gaul, searching for lands to settle.

Toward the Climax of the Cimbrian War

The Roman defeats at Noreia, Gallia Narbonensis, and Burdigala set the stage for one of the greatest military crises of the Roman Republic, eventually leading to the rise of Gaius Marius, who would later be tasked with defeating the Cimbri and their allies in a series of decisive battles (102–101 BCE).

The Cimbrian victories in Gaul reinforced their status as one of Rome’s most formidable adversaries, contributing to the political instability and military reforms that would shape the late Republic.

The Cimbri’s Arrival in Gaul and the Spark of Celtic Resistance (109 BCE–107 BCE)

The arrival of the Cimbri in Gaul in 109 BCE and their decisive defeat of the Roman consul Marcus Junius Silanus triggered unrest among the recently conquered Celtic tribes in southern Gaul. This defeat destabilized Roman rule in the region, emboldening local Gallic and Alpine tribes to resist Roman authority.

The Cimbri’s Request for Land and Roman Rejection

• Before their battle with Silanus, the Cimbri had requested land within Roman territory to settle.
• The Roman Senate refused their request, maintaining its expansionist policies in Gaul.
• In response, Silanus launched a military campaign against the Cimbri, only to be completely defeated at an unknown location in Gallia Transalpina (southern Gaul).

The Role of the Tigurini and Their Migration South (109 BCE)

• The Tigurini, a pagus (clan or sub-tribe) of the Helvetii, encountered the Cimbri while traveling through the Alps.
• The two groups formed an alliance, and the Tigurini migrated southward into the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis (modern Provence).
• This movement further weakened Roman control over the region, as local Celtic tribes saw an opportunity to challenge Rome’s dominance.

The Defeat of Lucius Cassius Longinus at Agen (107 BCE)

• Two years later (107 BCE), the Roman consul Lucius Cassius Longinus led a campaign against the Tigurini in an effort to reassert Roman authority in Gaul.
• Near Agen, Longinus was completely defeated, marking yet another humiliating loss for the Roman Republic.
• Gaius Popillius Laenas, the senior surviving Roman officer, was forced to negotiate for the survival of his army by:
  • Surrendering half of the baggage to the victors.
  • Submitting to the ultimate Roman humiliation—having his army "march under the yoke," a symbolic act of total submission to the enemy.

Consequences of These Defeats

• The back-to-back defeats at the hands of the Cimbri and Tigurini severely damaged Rome’s prestige in Gaul, leading to increased Celtic resistance and unrest.
• The failure of Roman military leadership highlighted the Republic’s vulnerability to large-scale migratory groups, leading to panic in Rome and urgent calls for military reform.
• The Roman defeats of 109 and 107 BCE set the stage for the Cimbrian War (113–101 BCE), which would culminate in the rise of Gaius Marius and his sweeping military reforms to counter the barbarian threat.

These events mark a critical phase in Rome’s struggle for dominance in Gaul, foreshadowing the larger conflicts and political shifts that would shape the late Republic and the expansion of Roman control in Western Europe.

The migrations of the Cimbri tribe through Gaul and adjacent territories has disturbed the balance of power and incited or provoked other tribes, such as the Helvetii, into conflict with the Romans.

An ambush of Roman troops and the temporary rebellion of the town of Tolosa has caused Roman troops to mobilize in the area, with three strong forces.

Rome and its new consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus and the proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio, in order to finally settle the matter of the invading Cimbri and Teutons, has gathered the largest force it has fielded since the Second Punic War, and possibly the largest force it has ever sent to battle.

The force consists of over 80,000 men, along with tens of thousands of support personnel and camp followers in two armies, one led by each consul.

Having regained Tolosa, Caepio adopts a defensive strategy, waiting to see if the Cimbri would move toward Roman territories again.

In October 105 BCE, they do.

The consuls lead their armies on their own armed migration to the Rhône River near Orange, Vaucluse, where, disliking and distrusting each other, they erect separate camps on opposite sides of the river; by so doing they leave their disunited force open to separate attack by the migrating Cimbri and Teutones.

The overconfident Caepio foolishly attacks without support from Maximus; his legions are wiped out and his undefended camp overrun.

The now isolated and demoralized troops of Maximus are then easily defeated.

Thousands more are slain trying desperately to rally and defend his poorly positioned camp.

Only Caepio, Maximus, and a few hundred Romans escape with their lives across the carnage-choked river.

The Battle of Arausio is the costliest defeat Rome has suffered since Cannae and, in fact, the losses and long-term consequences are far greater.

Though the actual casualty figure remains debated, Livy claims that the total number of Roman casualties (not including camp followers or other noncombatants) amounted to eighty thousand.

Theodore Mommsen claims that besides the eighty thousand Roman soldiers, half as many of the auxiliaries and camp-followers perished.

Plutarch, in his "Life of Marius," did mention that the soil of the fields the battle had been fought upon were made so fertile by human remains that they were able to produce "magna copia" (a great quantity) of yield for many years.

For the Cimbri and Teutons it is a great (though temporary) triumph.

Instead of immediately gathering their allies and marching on Rome, the Cimbri proceed to Hispania, while the Teutones remain in Gaul.

Why they again failed to invade Italy remains a mystery.

Perhaps they thought easier plunder could be found in Gaul and Spain.

It is also possible that, owing to their reckless battle tactics, the Germans had suffered heavy casualties in their victories over the Romans and decided they were not yet strong enough to engage them on their home ground.

Unfortunately for them, they would soon be faced with one of the greatest Roman generals at the head of a new and much deadlier army.

The Cimbri’s Conflict with the Arverni and the Rise of Gaius Marius (c. 106–104 BCE)

After their series of victories over the Romans (113–107 BCE), the Cimbri next clashed with the Arverni, one of the most powerful Celtic tribes in Gaul. Despite their earlier success against the Romans, the Cimbri faced fierce resistance from the Arverni, leading to a hard-fought struggle.

The Cimbri's Decision to Move Toward the Pyrenees

• Rather than immediately marching into Italy, the Cimbri changed course and set out for the Pyrenees, possibly seeking new territories or trying to avoid prolonged warfare in Gaul.
• This diversion delayed their direct conflict with Rome, allowing the Romans a critical period to regroup and strengthen their defenses.
• The temporary absence of the Cimbri from Italy created an opportunity for Rome to reevaluate its military strategies.

The Election of Gaius Marius: Rome’s Response to the Cimbrian Threat

• With Rome in crisis following a string of humiliating defeats, the Senate and the Roman people turned to a proven military leader: Gaius Marius.
• Marius, a skilled general and veteran of previous wars, was elected consul in 107 BCE and again in 104 BCEto deal with the escalating barbarian threat.
• His military reforms would revolutionize the Roman army, including:
  • The recruitment of landless citizens (breaking the traditional property requirements for soldiers).
  • Reorganization of the legions, improving discipline and battlefield effectiveness.
  • Standardization of weapons and training, making Rome’s army more adaptable and efficient.

The Turning Point in the Cimbrian War

• The Cimbri’s decision to delay their advance into Italy gave Rome the breathing space it desperately needed.
• Marius' leadership and reforms ultimately transformed Rome’s military and prepared it for the decisive battles that would culminate in Rome’s final victory over the Cimbri and their allies in 102–101 BCE.
• This period marked the beginning of Marius’ dominance in Roman politics and set the stage for future power struggles in the late Republic.

The Cimbri’s diversion toward the Pyrenees inadvertently led to the rise of Rome’s greatest military reformer, ensuring that when they finally returned, they would face a far more formidable Roman army led by a strategic mastermind.

Marius replaces the Roman militia with a professional standing force composed mostly of able-bodied but landless volunteers.

He improves and standardized training, weapons, armor, equipment, and command structure, and makes the cohort the main tactical and administrative unit of the legion.

Along with these new arrangements come new standards and symbols, such as the aquila, which the troops come to revere and which is never allowed to fall into enemy hands.

Caepio, upon his return to Rome, is tried by a tribune of the plebs, Gaius Norbanus, for having brought about the defeat of his army by the Cimbri through rashness, and also of having plundered the temple of Tolosa.

Caepio is convicted, and is given the harshest sentence allowable: he is stripped of his citizenship, forbidden fire and water (a formulaic expression of banishment) within eight hundred miles of Rome, nominally fined fifteen thousand talents (about eight hundred and twenty-five thousand pounds) of gold, and forbidden to see or speak to his friends or family until he has left for exile.

(The huge fine—which greatly exceeds the Treasury of Rome—will never be collected.)

Caepio will spend the rest of his life in exile in Smyrna in Asia Minor.

Mallius, who had lost his sons in the battle, is also impeached for the loss of his army.

Although it is unclear whether Mallius was convicted at trial and subsequently went into exile, he is also placed under an aquae et ignis interdictio by a rogatio of Saturninus.