Chinese civilization, as described in mythology, begins with Pangu, the creator of the universe, and a succession of legendary sage-emperors and culture heroes who teach the ancient Chinese to communicate and to find sustenance, clothing, and shelter.

The first prehistoric dynasty is said to be Xia, from about the twenty-first to the sixteenth century BCE.

Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Anyang, Henan Province, in 1928, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the Xia, but since then, and especially in the 1960s and 1970s, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the existence of Xia civilization in the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts.

At minimum, the Xia period marks an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the Chinese urban civilization typical of the Shang dynasty.

A line of hereditary Shang kings rules over much of northern China, and Shang troops fight frequent wars with neighboring settlements and nomadic herdsmen from the inner Asian steppes.

The capitals, one of which is at the site of the modern city of Anyang, are centers of glittering court life.

Court rituals to propitiate spirits and to honor sacred ancestors are highly developed.

In addition to his secular position, the king is the head of the ancestor- and spirit-worship cult.

Evidence from the royal tombs indicates that royal personages were buried with articles of value, presumably for use in the afterlife.

Perhaps for the same reason, hundreds of commoners, who may have been slaves, are buried alive with the royal corpse.

Thousands of archaeological finds in the Yellow River or Huang He Valley—the apparent cradle of Chinese civilization—provide evidence about the Shang dynasty, which endured roughly from 1700 to 1027 BCE.

The Shang dynasty (also called the Yin dynasty in its later stages) is believed to have been founded by a rebel leader who overthrew the last Xia ruler.

Its civilization is based on agriculture, augmented by hunting and animal husbandry.

Two important events of the period are the development of a writing system, as revealed in archaic Chinese inscriptions found on tortoise shells and flat cattle bones (commonly called oracle bones), and the use of bronze metallurgy.

A number of ceremonial bronze vessels with inscriptions date from the Shang period; the workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization.

Maritime East Asia (2205–2062 BCE): Agricultural Expansion, Cultural Decline, and the Birth of the Xia Dynasty

Between 2205 BCE and 2062 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—experiences crucial transformations marked by shifts in agricultural practices, climatic upheaval leading to cultural decline, and foundational events associated with legendary Chinese rulers. These developments notably include the agricultural practices of Korea's Middle Jeulmun period, the climatic challenges that cause the decline of China's flourishing Longshan culture, and the rise of legendary figures like Shun and Yu the Great, culminating in the establishment of China’s first hereditary dynasty, the Xia Dynasty.

Middle Jeulmun Agriculture on the Korean Peninsula

During Korea’s Middle Jeulmun period (ca. 3500–2000 BCE), agricultural practices gain importance as a supplement to traditional subsistence methods. Archaeological evidence from at least fourteen sites across the peninsula confirms early cultivation practices through finds such as carbonized plant remains and agricultural stone tools.

Notably, Dongsam-dong Shellmidden in southern Korea yields direct AMS radiocarbon dates for domesticated foxtail millet (Setaria italica ssp. italica), firmly placing its cultivation within this era (Crawford and Lee, 2003). Additional evidence, though somewhat controversial, emerges at Jitam-ri (Chitam-ni) in present-day North Korea. Here, excavations of pit-house structures yield carbonized grains described by local archaeologists as domesticated millet, although limitations in excavation methods and documentation leave room for scholarly debate.

Nevertheless, cultivation remains largely supplementary during this era. Subsistence in Korea continues heavily emphasizing deep-sea fishing, shellfish gathering, and hunting. Simultaneously, the distinctive "Classic Jeulmun" pottery, known locally as Bitsalmunui, develops, characterized by intricate comb-patterning, cord-wrapping, and decorative patterns covering entire vessel surfaces. This pottery is primarily identified in west-central and southern coastal Korea, reflecting regional cultural developments and the increasing complexity of Jeulmun societies.

Collapse of the Late Longshan Culture in China

In China, this period witnesses a dramatic demographic and cultural shift associated with a major climatic event, the 4.2 kiloyear BP aridification event (around 2200 BCE). The previously thriving Longshan culture—known especially for its refined black pottery and urbanizing settlements—faces severe environmental challenges, including drought, cooling climate, and declining agricultural productivity, particularly affecting the Yishu River Basin.

The resulting agricultural failures, notably impacting rice production, lead to substantial population reductions, societal fragmentation, and the disappearance of sophisticated ritual pottery characteristic of the Longshan tradition. Around 2000 BCE (4000 cal. yr BP), archaeological records show that Longshan settlements are gradually replaced by simpler, less sophisticated, and more fragmented cultural groups.

Legendary Chinese Rulers: Shun and Yu the Great

Concurrently, legendary historical narratives transmitted through later Confucian texts provide context for China’s social and political transformations. According to these traditions, the virtuous sage-emperor Shun rules during this time, symbolizing moral integrity and exemplary governance. Shun’s reign is credited with key administrative accomplishments, including standardizing weights and measures, organizing China into twelve administrative provinces, and regulating waterways and infrastructure projects.

Shun’s most significant legacy, however, is his choice of successor, Yu the Great—the celebrated hero famed for controlling the catastrophic flooding of previous decades. Yu is honored in later traditions as a foundational figure, renowned for his mastery of waterways and his pioneering role in early Chinese bronze technology. Cultural memory of Yu survives in rituals such as the Taoist Yu’s Step, a ritual dance commemorating the distinctive limp Yu reportedly developed due to his exhausting labors in flood control.

Establishment of the Xia Dynasty

Around 2070 BCE, according to Chinese literary tradition, Yu the Great officially establishes the Xia Dynasty, China’s first imperial dynasty characterized by hereditary succession. Named after Yu’s own Si clan, the Xia Dynasty symbolizes the crucial transition from tribal or collective leadership structures to formal, dynastic monarchy. Some early historical sources alternatively suggest the Xia Dynasty originated as a confederation of agricultural village leaders organized primarily for defense against northern nomadic intrusions from Mongolia and Manchuria.

Though modern historians debate the Xia Dynasty’s precise historical veracity, its cultural importance is undisputed. Yu’s reign, particularly his legendary founding acts—including organizing China into nine zhou (provinces) during meetings at Mount Miao—establishes an enduring template for subsequent Chinese imperial administration.

Legacy of the Era: Climatic Stress, Cultural Resilience, and Dynastic Foundations

Thus, the era 2205–2062 BCE represents a decisive turning point in Maritime East Asia’s historical and cultural trajectory. On the Korean Peninsula, early agricultural experimentation complements traditional subsistence strategies, signaling nascent complexity within Jeulmun societies. In China, environmental stress triggers the decline of the previously dominant Longshan culture, marking a pivotal cultural shift toward simpler, dispersed societies. Meanwhile, legendary sage-rulers Shun and Yu symbolize enduring models of governance, moral virtue, and technological innovation, culminating in the foundational legacy of China’s earliest recognized dynasty—the Xia.

These developments set critical precedents, profoundly shaping the social, political, and cultural foundations upon which future civilizations throughout Lower East Asia continue to build.

The Neolithic population in China had reached its peak during the Longshan culture.

The drought associated with the 4.2 kiloyear BP aridification event may have caused the collapse of Neolithic cultures around Central China during the late third millennium BCE.

In the Yishu River Basin, the flourishing Longshan culture is hit by a cooling that makes the rice paddies fall short in output.

The scarcity in natural resource leads to substantial decrease in population and subsequent drop in archaeological sites, marked by the disappearance of high-quality black pottery found in ritual burials.

About 4000 cal. yr BP, Longshan culture is displaced by cultures that are relatively underdeveloped, simple and unsophisticated.

Chinese events during this period are shrouded in legend, according to which the emperor Shun, later characterized by Confucius as a model of integrity and resplendent virtue, rules China.

Shun is credited with standardizing weights and measures, regulating waterways, and organizing the kingdom into twelve provinces or regions.

During his reign, marvelous phenomena reportedly occur in the heavens and on earth.

He makes the ingenious Yu, the Tamer of the Flood, his successor.

(Later Chinese traditions will honor this legendary culture hero as the shaper of the country's waterways and the originator of bronze technology.

The Taoist ritual known as Yu's Step, a dance in which one foot is dragged behind the other, commemorates the limp Yu supposedly developed as a result of his exhausting labors.)

As Yu the Great, he inaugurates China's Xia dynasty, named for the Si clan from which Yu springs, in about 2070, making the rulership hereditary in his family and thereby founding the first imperial dynasty in China. (According to other Chinese literary sources, this earliest Chinese dynasty is derived from a leading member of the village agricultural units that cooperated in valley defense against perennial intrusions of mounted nomad archers from Mongolia and Manchuria to the north.)

The legendary Chinese leader Shun, among the Three August Ones and the Five Emperors that precede the semi-legendary Xia dynasty, had made the ingenious Yu, the Tamer of the Flood, his successor, passing over his own son.

(Later Chinese traditions will honor the legendary culture hero as shaper of the country’s waterways and the originator of bronze technology.)

The Daoist (Taoist) ritual known as Yu's Step, a dance in which one foot is dragged behind the other, commemorates the limp Yu supposedly developed as a result of his exhausting labors.)

The Si clan, from which Da Yu (Ta Yü), "Yu the Great," springs, inaugurates China’s Xia (Hsia) dynasty about 2070: this is the first dynasty to be described in Chinese historical records.

According to other Chinese literary sources, this earliest Chinese dynasty is derived from a leading member of the village agricultural units that cooperated in valley defense against perennial intrusions of mounted nomad bowmen from Mongolia and Manchuria to the north.

Maritime East Asia (2061–1918 BCE): Xia Dynasty Traditions, Agricultural Diversification, and Austronesian Expansion

Between 2061 BCE and 1918 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—experiences significant cultural and agricultural developments. Key highlights include legendary cultural traditions associated with the early Xia Dynasty in China, the diversification of agriculture with the introduction of wheat, and the arrival and settlement of Austronesian-speaking ancestors of Taiwan’s indigenous peoples.

Xia Dynasty Traditions and Cultural Innovations

According to Chinese historical tradition, the early Xia Dynasty—regarded as China's first hereditary dynasty—solidifies around 2070 BCE under the legendary leadership lineage begun by Yu the Great. Mythological accounts prominently feature the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) as a foundational ancestor of Han Chinese civilization, crediting him with vital cultural and scientific innovations. These include the development of the core principles of traditional Chinese medicine, invention of the Chinese calendrical system (including the sexagenary cycle), and establishing standardized musical pitch (huang chung, or "yellow bell") fundamental to later Chinese musical traditions.

These narratives significantly shape Chinese historical identity, emphasizing foundational virtues and cultural continuity rooted deeply in the legendary Xia period.

Austronesian Expansion and Early Settlement in Taiwan

During this same era, significant demographic and cultural transformations occur on Taiwan. Archaeological evidence confirms human habitation dating back roughly 30,000 years, but around 2000 BCE, ancestors of modern Taiwanese indigenous peoples, speaking Austronesian languages, settle permanently on the island. These ancestral populations are culturally and genetically connected with groups in maritime Southeast Asia, sharing maternal lineage links with the broader Polynesian population.

Taiwan thus emerges as a critical early node in the Austronesian migration network, eventually leading to widespread maritime settlement across the Pacific. This early Austronesian presence on Taiwan has enduring implications, linking Taiwan’s indigenous peoples culturally and linguistically with diverse Pacific and Southeast Asian communities.

Introduction and Establishment of Wheat Cultivation

Another crucial agricultural advancement in southern, central, and northeastern China during this era is the introduction of wheat cultivation, around 2000 BCE. Wheat’s arrival significantly diversifies agricultural productivity and diets, enhancing food security and laying foundations for increasingly complex, stable, and prosperous societies. Wheat farming complements existing staple crop systems based on rice and millet, thus strengthening agricultural resilience in Lower East Asia’s varied environmental contexts.

Legacy of the Era: Foundations of Cultural Complexity and Diversity

Thus, the era 2061–1918 BCE profoundly impacts Maritime East Asia through foundational legendary traditions of the early Xia Dynasty in China, major agricultural innovations, and early Austronesian migrations into Taiwan. These developments reinforce the region’s central role in the historical evolution of East Asian civilization and cultural diversity, setting enduring precedents for future regional historical trajectories.

Wheat appears in China by around 2000 BCE.

China’s village agricultural units cooperate in valley defense against perennial intrusions of mounted nomad bowmen from Mongolia and Manchuria to the north (the legendary Xia dynasty, according to Chinese literary sources, derives from a leading member of one such unit).

The development of Chinese culture in the loess lands of China's middle Huang He valley serves (with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley) as the third of Asia’s “culture hearths.”

The development of Chinese culture in the loess lands of China's middle Huang He valley serves (with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley) as the third of Asia’s “culture hearths.”

Yu dies, according to historical texts, at Mount Kuaiji (south of present day Shaoxing) while on a hunting tour on the southern frontier of his empire, and is buried here, where a mausoleum is built in his honor.

Instead of passing power to the person deemed most capable of rulership, Yu had passed power to his son, Qi, setting the precedence for dynastic rule.

The Xia Dynasty thus begins a period of family or clan control.