Diyarbekir, Ottoman eyalet of

The expanding Ottoman Empire had overpowered the Balkan Peninsula in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Present-day European Turkey and the Balkans, among the first territories conquered, are used as bases for expansion far to the West during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

The Ottoman Turks have by 1517 conquered Persia, Syria, Palestine, the Hejaz and Egypt itself, in the process destroying the Mamluks, who have failed to adopt field artillery as a weapon in any but siege warfare.

The Ottoman Empire is a world power when Suleyman dies in 1566.

Most of the great cities of Islam—Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Cairo, Tunis, and Baghdad— are under the sultan's crescent flag.

The Porte exercises direct control over Anatolia, the sub-Danubian Balkan provinces, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia.

Egypt, Mecca, and the North African provinces are governed under special regulations, as are satellite domains in Arabia and the Caucasus, and among the Crimean Tartars.

In addition, the native rulers of Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Ragusa (Dubrovnik) are vassals of the sultan.

The Ottoman army under Ali Riza Pasha marches from Aleppo into Iraq in 1831.

Baghdad, devastated by floods and an epidemic of bubonic plague, capitulates after a token resistance.

Daud-Pasha, facing opposition within Iraq on the part of local clergy, surrenders to the Ottomans and is treated with favor.

He will end his life in 1851 as custodian of the shrine at Medina; the remaining Mamluks are exterminated.

The arrival of the Sultan’s new governor in Baghdad in 1831 signals the beginning of a direct Ottoman rule in Iraq.

Iraq at this period is nominally part of the Ottoman Empire but in practice largely autonomous.

Mamluk rulers have governed in the territory that has become Iraq, acquiring increasing autonomy from the Sultan, from 1704 to 1831.

Mamluks were originally freed slaves who had converted to Islam, and were assigned to military and administrative duties in the Ottoman Empire.

The history of modern Iraq’s boundaries can be traced to 1749, when the Sultan extended the authority of the Mamluk vali (governor) of Basra to include the eyalet (province) of Baghdad, initiating a period of Mamluk rule that lasts until 1831.

After seizing control in 1816-17, Dawud Pasha had initiated modernization programs that included clearing canals, establishing industries, and reforming the army with the help of European instructors.

The political and economic policies of Dawud Pasha have united these eyalets, although their external borders are ill-defined.

Following Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt, the British government had recognized the strategic importance of the Middle East in defending its eastern empire and commercial ambitions against the French (and later against Russia), and at the beginning of the nineteenth century had negotiated inter alia the establishment of a British consulate in Baghdad.

Dawud had reduced the influence of the British Consul, and, perhaps more controversially, had compelled the British East India Company to begin paying duties on imported goods.

It was at the instigation of the British government that the Sultan seized back control of Baghdad, facilitating a resurgence of British influence in the region.

In 1830, the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II decreed Dawud Pasha's dismissal, which is enforced the following year by an army under Ali Ridha Pasha, which ousts Dawud and reimposes direct Ottoman rule on Iraq.

Ali Rıza Pasha still has to deal with the Mamluks who remain in Baghdad.

In order to preserve his power and pacify the Mamluks, he gives many of them positions in his government.

In the days following his conquest of Baghdad, Ali Rıza Pasha publishes a firman, or decree, that makes him the governing authority over the cities of: Baghdad, ...