West Europe (1396–1539 CE)

Dynastic Struggles, Maritime Republics, and Reformation Currents

Geography & Environmental Context

West Europe in this age bridged the Mediterranean and the Atlantic through two intertwined spheres.
Mediterranean West Europe encompassed southern France (Languedoc, Provence, the Rhône valley, the French Pyrenees), Monaco, and Corsica—a frontier of mountain uplands, terraced coasts, and river plains tied to Italian and Iberian seas.
Atlantic West Europe ran along the Atlantic and Channel coasts of France, the Loire Valley Burgundy, northern France (including Paris), and the Low Countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg)—fertile basins and estuaries linked to Europe’s commercial cores.
From Marseille and Nice to Antwerp, Rouen, and Bordeaux, ports, riverways, and passes bound inland grainlands to sealanes and mercantile emporia.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age brought cooler winters, late frosts, and erratic rains.

• Languedoc–Provence & Corsica: Vine and olive belts suffered frost damage in severe winters; storms battered harbors.

• Rhône & Loire valleys; Paris Basin; Burgundy: Alternating floods, droughts, and cold snaps reshaped grain and grape yields.

• Low Countries & Channel coasts: North Sea surges and wetter fields demanded relentless dike upkeep; fisheries endured rougher seas yet remained staples.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Mediterranean sphere: Mixed farming of wheat, barley, rye, and legumes in valleys; vines and olives on coastal terraces; chestnuts in Corsican uplands. Sheep–goat transhumance linked Pyrenean and island pastures to town markets. Marseille, Avignon, Montpellier, Nice, and Ajaccio thrived as fortified, trade-facing towns.

• Atlantic sphere: Wheat, rye, oats, and barley dominated; Burgundy’s vineyards and the Loire’s orchards supported regional exchange; flax and hemp in Flanders; dairy and cattle in the Low Countries. Paris, Rouen, Dieppe, Bordeaux, Bruges, Antwerp, Ghent, and Brussels anchored urban craft and export economies. Fisheries for herring and cod—salted and barreled—fed towns and long-distance trade.

Technology & Material Culture

• Agriculture: Three-field rotations; water- and windmills; hillside terracing across Provence and Corsica.

• Shipbuilding & seamanship: Mediterranean galleys and Atlantic cogs evolved toward caravels and larger ocean-going hulls; coastal shipyards provisioned fleets from Marseille to Rouen and Antwerp.

• Architecture: Flamboyant Gothic cathedrals in Narbonne and Montpellier; papal complexes at Avignon; Genoese towers on Corsica; Burgundian ducal palaces; Flemish belfries and town halls; early Renaissance idioms appeared in Loire châteaux.

• Print & craft: Lyon, Paris, and Antwerp emerged as printing hubs; Flemish woolens and tapestries, Burgundian wines, and Parisian luxury metalwork set European tastes.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Mediterranean sealanes: Marseille and Monaco linked to Genoa, Naples, and Barcelona; Corsica sat astride Italy–Iberia–Maghreb routes.

• Rhône corridor: Carried salt, wine, and grain north to Lyon and beyond.

• Atlantic & Channel arteries: Bruges (declining by 1500), Antwerp (rising), and Rouen tied northern Europe to Iberia and the Mediterranean; Bordeaux connected the Loire–Garonne basins to the ocean.

• Overland networks: Burgundian roads knit Dijon and Brussels to the Empire and France; pilgrimage roads joined Roussillon, Provence, and the Loire to Santiago de Compostela and Rome.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Catholic orthodoxy & humanism: Monastic houses and cathedrals structured devotion; Avignon’s papal legacy lingered. Lyon and Avignon sustained humanist circles;  Montpellier’s medical school gained renown.

• Burgundian court culture: Under the Valois dukes (Philip the Good, Charles the Bold), Dijon and Brussels patronized Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, and civic pageantry.

• French monarchy & Renaissance: Post–Hundred Years’ War recovery culminated in Francis I’s embrace of Italianate forms and royal patronage along the Loire.

• Netherlandish art: Early Netherlandish painters pioneered oil technique; civic commissions in Ghent, Bruges, and Antwerp flourished. Troubadour legacies survived in lyric verse across Provence; confraternities staged processions and charity in town parishes.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Diversified ecologies: Mixed cereals, vines, olives, flax, and livestock spread climatic risk.

• Water & earth works: Terraces and dikes stabilized fragile slopes and polders; flood embankments guarded the Rhône, Loire, and Low Country coasts.

• Storage & exchange: Communal barns, urban granaries, and salt trade mitigated shortfalls; guild aid, hospitals, and beguinages provided social buffers.

Technology & Power Shifts (Conflict Dynamics)

• Hundred Years’ War (to 1453): Though major battles lay north, raids and instability touched Languedoc and Provence. French resurgence culminated in Joan of Arc’s campaigns (1429) and Castillon (1453).

• Aragon–French rivalry: Roussillon oscillated between crowns; Pyrenean frontiers remained militarized.

• Burgundian Wars (1474–1477): Charles the Bold fell at Nancy; his inheritance split—parts to France, the rest to the Habsburgs—reshaping Low Country sovereignty.

• Italian Wars (1494–1559): Drew Provence and Corsica into Valois–Habsburg struggles; Fornovo (1495) and Pavia (1525, capture of Francis I) reverberated through Provençal ports.

• Corsica: Fought over by Genoa and Aragon; Genoa reasserted control, fortifying coasts against Barbary corsairs.

• Naval theaters: Mediterranean galley wars and Adriatic–Aegean rivalries impacted Marseille and Monaco; the Low Countries pivoted toward Habsburg naval finance and Atlantic networks.

Transition (to 1539 CE)

By 1539, West Europe stood as a frontier of empires and a laboratory of recovery and renaissance.
In the Mediterranean, France had consolidated Provence and Roussillon yet suffered reverses in Italy; Genoa controlled Corsica, bracing against French and Ottoman pressure; Marseille and Monaco thrived as naval–mercantile hubs under the shadow of corsair raids.
Across the Atlantic sphere, Burgundy was partitioned between Valois and Habsburg realms; the Low Countries emerged as Europe’s commercial heart, with Antwerp surpassing Bruges as entrepôt to Iberian spice and silver trades.
Humanism animated Lyon and Avignon; Gothic and early Renaissance forms stood side by side; confessional tensions gathered on the horizon.
Poised between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, West Europe entered the mid-16th century as both battlefield and marketplace—its rivers and ports set to channel the coming storms of Reformation and Habsburg–Valois rivalry.

Atlantic West Europe (1396–1539 CE): Burgundian Prestige, French Recovery, and Netherlandish Flourishing

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of Atlantic West Europe includes the Atlantic and Channel coasts of France, the Loire Valley, Burgundy, northern France (including Paris), and the Low Countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg). Anchors included the Channel ports (Calais, Rouen, Dieppe, Antwerp, Bruges, Amsterdam), the Loire valley (Orléans, Tours, Nantes), the Burgundian heartlands (Dijon, Beaune), and the Paris Basin. This zone blended coastal trade hubs, fertile river valleys, and political cores, linking France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age imposed cooler winters and erratic harvests:

• Paris Basin & Burgundy: Periodic frosts reduced wheat and grape harvests.

• Loire valley: Vineyards and orchards remained productive in most decades but saw occasional setbacks from floods and cold snaps.

• Low Countries: Waterlogged fields required dike maintenance; storm surges (notably 15th-century North Sea floods) devastated coastal settlements.

• Atlantic coasts: Rough seas complicated fishing and shipping; herring and cod fisheries persisted, anchoring diets.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agriculture: Wheat, rye, oats, and barley; vineyards in Burgundy and the Loire; flax and hemp in Flanders; dairy and cattle in the Low Countries.

• Fishing: Channel and North Sea fisheries for herring, cod, and flatfish; salted and barrelled for trade.

• Urban centers: Paris as royal capital; Bruges, Antwerp, Ghent, and Brussels as mercantile and craft hubs; Rouen, Dieppe, and Bordeaux on the Atlantic coast.

• Craft production: Flemish cloth, Burgundian wines, and Parisian luxury goods (illuminated manuscripts, metalwork).

Technology & Material Culture

• Agrarian systems: Three-field rotation, water- and windmills, improved plows in northern France and the Low Countries.

• Textiles: Flemish woolens, later outpaced by English cloth but still dominant; silk and luxury fabrics in Lyon by early 16th century.

• Architecture: Gothic cathedrals (Rouen, Chartres), Burgundian ducal palaces, Flemish town halls, and belfries; early Renaissance style appeared in royal châteaux along the Loire.

• Print: Presses in Paris, Lyon, Antwerp; humanist works circulated widely.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Channel & Atlantic ports: Bruges (declining), Antwerp (rising after c.1500), and Rouen tied northern Europe to Iberia and the Mediterranean.

• Loire River corridor: Linked Atlantic ports to Paris and Burgundy.

• Burgundian roads: Connected Dijon and Brussels to the Empire and France.

• Pilgrimage routes: To Chartres, Mont-Saint-Michel, and Santiago via Atlantic ports.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Burgundian court culture: Centered at Dijon and Brussels under the Valois dukes (Philip the Good, Charles the Bold); patronized Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, and courtly pageantry.

• French monarchy: Reasserted authority after the Hundred Years’ War; patronage of the arts flourished under Francis I, who embraced the Renaissance.

• Netherlandish art: Early Netherlandish painters pioneered oil painting; civic patronage in Ghent, Bruges, and Antwerp thrived.

• Religious life: Catholic piety remained dominant; confraternities, processions, and urban guild altars structured devotion. Reformist murmurs appeared by early 16th century.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Dike building & poldering: Secured farmland in the Low Countries; towns rebuilt after floods.

• Diversification: Farmers planted grains, vines, flax, and maintained cattle to spread risk.

• Grain storage & trade: Surpluses from fertile regions like Artois and Flanders mitigated poor harvests elsewhere.

• Urban resilience: Guild charities, hospitals, and beguinages provided relief in lean years.

Technology & Power Shifts (Conflict Dynamics)

• Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453): Culminated in Joan of Arc’s campaigns (1429) and the Battle of Castillon (1453), restoring French control of most territory.

• Burgundian Wars (1474–1477): Charles the Bold fell at the Battle of Nancy (1477); his lands were split between France and the Habsburgs.

• French monarchy: Consolidated Loire valley as a royal heartland; launched the Italian Wars (1494–1559) under Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I, drawing Burgundy and French Atlantic ports into continental conflict.

• Low Countries: Fell under Habsburg rule after the Burgundian inheritance (1477–1482); Antwerp rose as a Habsburg entrepôt, drawing Iberian spice and silver trades by 1500.

• Franco-Imperial rivalry: Battle of Pavia (1525) saw Francis I captured by Charles V, marking Habsburg predominance; northern France became a frontier of war finance and recruitment.

Transition

By 1539 CE, Atlantic West Europe had shifted from Hundred Years’ War devastation to Renaissance resurgence and early global entanglement. France’s Loire valley glittered with Renaissance châteaux; Burgundy had been absorbed into Valois and Habsburg spheres; the Low Countries emerged as Europe’s commercial heart, with Antwerp surpassing Bruges. Coastal fisheries and Channel ports endured climatic strain, but shipping and finance tied the region ever more tightly to Iberian Atlantic empires. Rivalries between Valois France and Habsburg Spain–Netherlands shaped a region poised at the forefront of European conflict and global expansion.

Northwest Europe (1396–1539 CE): North Sea Commons, Island Kingdoms, and Tudor Beginnings

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of Northwest Europe includes the British–Irish archipelago, Iceland and the Faroes, and the ocean-facing rims of western Norway and western Denmark. Anchors span the North Atlantic fisheries (Iceland, Faroes, Shetland–Orkney), the North Sea littoral (Jutland, Yorkshire–East Anglia, Firths of Forth and Clyde), the Irish Sea and Channel approaches, and inland cores such as the Thames–Severn lowlands, Scottish Highlands/Islands, and Irish midlands. River corridors (Thames, Severn, Humber), firths, and sounds tied agrarian interiors to maritime trade, while the Norwegian fjords and Jutland bights faced wind-heavy seas.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age sharpened cold and storminess:

• North Atlantic fringe (Iceland, Faroes, west Norway): longer sea-ice seasons and harsher gales; erratic cod/herring runs shaped fishing booms and busts.

• Britain & Ireland: cooler winters, wet summers in some decades; harvest failures recurred locally; severe storms and surges disrupted coasts.

• Jutland & North Sea: shifting bars and storm surges altered havens; dunes advanced on exposed shores.
  Despite volatility, fisheries and mixed husbandry buffered many communities.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Lowland farms (England, eastern Ireland, Jutland): wheat, rye, barley, oats; cattle, sheep, and dairying; open-field systems persisted in much of England, while enclosed demesnes and pastures spread unevenly.

• Uplands & isles (Scotland, Wales, west Ireland, Norway): oats, barley, stock-rearing, and transhumant dairying; peat fuel; kelp and shore-gathering in island economies.

• Iceland & Faroes: subsistence grain marginal; livelihoods centered on cod, dried fish, seabirds, sheep, and trade with Bergen–Hanse merchants.

• Towns & ports: London (Thames) surged as a staple market; York, Bristol, Dublin, Cork, Edinburgh/Leith, Aberdeen, Bergen, and Aalborg tied hinterlands to sea lanes.

Technology & Material Culture

• Maritime craft: clinker-built hulks and cogs gave way to round-hulled naos and early caravels; North Sea sailing rigs adapted to shoals and tides; Icelandic and Norse open boats remained crucial.

• Arms & fortification: English longbow remained decisive into the mid-15th century; early handguns and field guns appeared; castles evolved toward gun-forts and, in Scotland/Ireland, tower houses.

• Print & craft: William Caxton introduced printing to England (1476); cloth finishing (East Anglia, Yorkshire), tin/lead (Cornwall), and shipwrighting expanded.

• Architecture & art: Perpendicular Gothic in England; late medieval parish art in Ireland; stave-church legacies and stone churches in west Norway; bardic manuscripts in Gaelic lands; saga copying continued in Icelandic scriptoria.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• North Sea/Irish Sea lanes: carried wool, cloth, salt fish (herring, cod), wine, salt, and iron; London, Hull, and east-coast ports linked to Hanseatic towns and Bergen’s fish market.

• Atlantic ventures: Bristol merchants probed western waters; John Cabot’s voyage (1497) opened English awareness of Newfoundland’s cod banks.

• Fjord & Jutland coasts: Bergen–Hanse convoy cycles and Jutland’s cattle/grain exports sustained Norway–Denmark’s Atlantic rim.

• Isles networks: Birlinn and galley traffic knit Hebrides, Islay, Kintyre, Man, and Ulster; inter-island lordships balanced sea power and kin ties.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Monarchy & law: English common law courts stabilized after civil war; Scottish kings balanced Highland/Lowland blocs; Gaelic lordships in Ireland maintained Brehon law and bardic patronage alongside the English Pale.

• Language & letters: Middle English matured into Tudor English; Scots literature flourished (Dunbar, Henryson); Gaelic poetry remained courtly and genealogical; Icelandic annals and sagas preserved memory.

• Devotion & reform: Late medieval piety—guild altars, pilgrimages (St. Andrews, Walsingham, St. David’s)—coexisted with early humanism; by the 1530s, England’s break with Rome began to reorder ritual and property.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Mixed portfolios: grain–livestock rotations, dairying, and woodland management hedged climatic risk; parish granaries and seigneurial stores mitigated famine.

• Fisheries & curing: salt fish, stockfish, and barrelled herring stabilized caloric intake and trade; salt-pan and coopers’ crafts were critical.

• Field systems & enclosure: commons and open fields balanced with piecemeal enclosure to protect flocks and improve yields; drainage in fens and dike work on exposed coasts guarded arable.

• Island adaptations: peat, driftwood, and turf for fuel; drying sheds and fish lofts; seasonal transhumance to shielings.

Technology & Power Shifts (Conflict Dynamics)

• Hundred Years’ War (to 1453): English chevauchées faded after Joan of Arc’s campaigns (1429); defeat at Castillon (1453) ended English rule in France, redirecting power struggles homeward.

• Wars of the Roses (1455–1487): Yorkist–Lancastrian civil war saw set-piece battles—Towton (1461), Tewkesbury (1471)—culminating in Tudor victory at Bosworth Field (1485); Henry VII stabilized crown finances and order.

• Anglo-Scottish warpoints: Border raids persisted; Scotland’s defeat at Flodden (1513) killed James IV, reshaping regency politics.

• Ireland: Tudor authority remained thin beyond the Pale; Gaelic confederacies and earldoms contested royal initiatives; intermittent wars foreshadowed later Tudor conquest.

• Scandinavia: Denmark–Norway ruled the Atlantic rim; Bergen’s Hanse links endured; the Count’s Feud (1534–1536) in Denmark–Norway (closing years of this age) ushered in the Lutheran Reformation and tighter royal control.

• Sea conflict: Privateering and piracy flickered in the Channel and North Sea; naval gunnery began to matter in convoy defense.

Transition

By 1539 CE, Northwest Europe had shifted from external continental wars to internal consolidation and oceanic horizons. England emerged under the Tudors with an embryonic navy and a royal church; Scotland balanced Franco-Scottish ties after Flodden; Ireland’s patchwork lordships and the Pale foreshadowed Tudor campaigns; Denmark–Norway steered the North Atlantic trades toward Lutheran monarchy; Iceland and the Faroes remained fishing outposts within this orbit. Fisheries, wool–cloth trades, and mixed husbandry underwrote resilience in a stormier climate, while printing and court centralization set the stage for later religious and imperial transformations.

Henry V's son, Henry VI, becomes king in 1422 as an infant.

His reign is to be marked by constant turmoil due to his political weaknesses.

While he is growing up, England is ruled by the Regency government.

The Regency Council attempts to install Henry VI as the King of France, as provided by the Treaty of Troyes signed by his father Henry V, and leads English forces to take over areas of France.

It appears they might succeed due to the poor political position of the son of King Charles VI, who has claimed to be the rightful king as King Charles VII of France.

However, in 1429, Joan of Arc begins to lead a military effort by the French to prevent the English from gaining control of France.

With her help, the French forces are able to push the English forces back and to regain control of French territory.

Henry VI comes of age in 1437 and begins to actively rule as king.

In an attempt to forge peace, he marries a French noblewoman, Margaret of Anjou, in 1445, as provided in the Treaty of Tours.

Hostilities resume with France in 1449.

When England loses the Hundred Years' War in August 1453, Henry falls into a period of mental breakdown that lasts until Christmas 1454.

With his inability to control the feuding nobles, civil war begins in 1455.

The conflicts are known as the Wars of the Roses (1455–1485), and although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there is a general breakdown in the authority and power of the Crown.

The royal court and Parliament move to Coventry, in the Lancastrian heartlands, which effectively becomes the capital of England until 1461.

Henry's cousin, who deposes Henry in 1461 and becomes Edward IV, goes a little way to restoring the power of the Crown.

Edward defeats the Lancastrians at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross.

He is briefly expelled from the throne in 1470–1471 when Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, brings Henry back to power.

Six months later, Edward defeats and kills Warwick in battle and reclaims the throne.

Henry is imprisoned in the Tower of London and dies there.

Henry V succeeds to the throne in 1413.

He renews hostilities with France and began a set of military campaigns which are considered a new phase of the Hundred Years War, referred to as the Lancastrian War.

He wins several notable victories over the French, including at the Battle of Agincourt.

In the Treaty of Troyes, Henry V is given the power to succeed the current ruler of France, Charles VI of France.

The Treaty also provides that he will marry Charles VI's daughter, Catherine of Valois.

They marry in 1421.

Henry dies of dysentery in 1422, leaving a number of unfulfilled plans, including his plan to take over as King of France. (Another unfulfilled plan was to lead a new crusade to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims.)

Edward III had given land to powerful noble families, including many people of royal lineage.

Because land is equivalent to power, these powerful men can try to claim the crown.

The autocratic and arrogant methods of Richard II only serve to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in 1399 by Henry IV increased the turmoil.

Henry spends much of his reign defending himself against plots, rebellions and assassination attempts.
 
Rebellions continue throughout the first ten years of Henry's reign, including the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr, who declares himself Prince of Wales in 1400, and the rebellion of Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland.

The king's success in putting down these rebellions is due partly to the military ability of his eldest son, Henry of Monmouth, who later becomes king (though the son manages to seize much effective power from his father in 1410).

Atlantic West Europe: Consolidation and Conflict (1396–1407)

The period from 1396 to 1407 inaugurates the Upper Late Medieval Age in Atlantic West Europe, a region comprising northern France, the Low Countries (including the Flemish cities of Ghent, Bruges, and Antwerp), and the Loire Valley. This era is characterized by ongoing dynastic struggles, economic shifts, artistic innovation, and foundational changes in political alliances.

Political and Military Developments

The early 15th century sees sustained tensions and shifting alliances, notably influenced by the ongoing Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). England and France continue their intermittent conflicts, with Atlantic West Europe often at the center of confrontation. In 1396, a temporary truce stabilizes the region, allowing both sides to consolidate resources. However, the peace remains fragile, leading eventually to renewed hostilities.

Internal conflicts mark this era as well, including rivalries among noble houses that exacerbate regional instability. Northern France witnesses struggles between Burgundian and Armagnac factions, deeply dividing the French aristocracy and laying the groundwork for future civil unrest.

Economic Developments

Atlantic West Europe's economic life remains dominated by thriving trade networks centered in Flemish cities like Bruges and Ghent, which serve as major hubs for international commerce. Woolen textiles maintain their centrality in the regional economy, although competition and disputes with English merchants over wool supply lead to trade disruptions. Bruges solidifies its role as the leading commercial center, facilitating extensive trade with Italian and Hanseatic merchants. Meanwhile, artisanal guilds in these prosperous cities grow more powerful and assertive in their local influence.

Cultural and Artistic Trends

Culturally, the region continues to develop its artistic reputation, exemplified by the early works of the Flemish Primitive painters, who build foundations for later masters like Jan van Eyck. Artistic patronage from the Burgundian court supports an atmosphere of experimentation, laying the groundwork for the stylistic innovations soon to transform European art.

Literary culture flourishes as well, with increased emphasis on vernacular works in French and Dutch, reflecting a growing sense of regional identity distinct from classical Latin traditions.

Technological and Societal Changes

The turn of the 15th century witnesses advances in maritime technology, driven by an increased desire for oceanic exploration and commerce. Shipbuilding techniques improve steadily in response to growing trade demands and competition, particularly from rising maritime powers in Iberia. Societal structures experience modest changes, as urban elites in trading cities begin to consolidate power, increasing tension with traditional feudal aristocracies.

Long-term Consequences and Significance

The era from 1396 to 1407 proves formative for Atlantic West Europe, setting a trajectory marked by intensified regional tensions, burgeoning economic power, and burgeoning cultural prestige. While temporary truces provide brief stability, underlying political fragmentation remains unresolved, presaging intensified conflicts and transformations in the following decades.

This period, therefore, lays essential foundations for the region’s complex future, marking the start of a critical transitional age in Atlantic West Europe's evolution through the Upper Late Medieval period.

The Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War: France's Internal Struggle Amidst the Hundred Years' War (1407–1435)

As France was already devastated by the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) and the conflicts surrounding the Western Schism (1378–1417), a civil war erupted between two rival factions of the French royal family, further weakening the kingdom and inviting English intervention. This conflict, known as the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435), pitted the House of Orléans (the Armagnacs) against the House of Burgundy, creating internal chaos at a critical moment in France’s history.

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I. Origins of the Conflict: The Murder of Louis of Orléans (1407)

• King Charles VI of France suffered from recurring bouts of insanity, rendering him unable to govern effectively.
• This left power in the hands of rival noble factions:
  • The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, who sought to dominate the French court.
  • The Orléanists (later the Armagnacs), led by Louis I, Duke of Orléans, the king’s ambitious younger brother.
• On November 23, 1407, John the Fearless orchestrated the assassination of Louis of Orléans in Paris, triggering open war between the two factions.

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II. The Armagnacs vs. The Burgundians

• The Armagnacs, named after Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, who led the Orléanist faction, were supported by:
  • The Dauphin (the future Charles VII).
  • Southern and central France.
  • Pro-Valois nobles who opposed Burgundian influence.
• The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, drew support from:
  • Northern France, including Paris.
  • The powerful Burgundian Netherlands.
  • Merchants and factions favoring English alliances.

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III. English Involvement and the Treaty of Troyes (1420)

• The conflict further destabilized France, allowing England to expand its conquests.
• In 1419, John the Fearless was assassinated by the Dauphin’s supporters, escalating the war.
• In 1420, the Treaty of Troyes, signed between the Burgundians and the English, disinherited the Dauphin and recognized England’s Henry V as heir to the French throne.

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IV. Resolution: The Treaty of Arras (1435)

• The civil war dragged on for years, preventing France from effectively resisting English occupation.
• In 1435, the Burgundians, under Philip the Good, switched sides, signing the Treaty of Arras with Charles VII.
• This allowed France to unite against England, leading to the eventual expulsion of the English from France by 1453.

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V. Impact and Legacy

• The Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435) was one of the most destructive internal conflicts in French history, delaying France’s recovery from English invasions.
• It permanently shaped French politics, reinforcing the importance of Burgundian power in European affairs.
• The Burgundian betrayal of the English in 1435 ultimately helped France regain the upper hand in the Hundred Years' War.

This civil war within a war deepened France’s crisis, allowing English expansion, but its resolution in 1435 marked the beginning of France’s resurgence and ultimate victory in the Hundred Years' War.

Such English composers as John Dunstaple and Leonel Power write mass-ordinary cycles, their movements usually related by such musical themes as a common head motive or a “cantus firmus” (“fixed song”).

The “cantus firmi,” originally composed or preexisting melodies on which a polyphonic composition is based, include borrowed plainsong melodies and secular tunes.

The innovative Dunstable bases his sensuous, constant harmony on interval of the third and the sixth.