Both animal and human sacrifice occur and bodies are immersed in bogs occasionally during this time.

In recent times some of these bog bodies have emerged very well-preserved, providing valuable information about the religion and people who lived in Denmark during this period.

Some of the most well-preserved bog bodies from the Nordic Iron Age are the Tollund Man and the Grauballe Man.

Depletion of cultivated land in the last century BCE seems to have contributed to increasing migrations in northern Europe and increasing conflict between Teutonic tribes and Roman settlements in Gaul.

Roman artifacts are especially common in finds from the first century.

It seems clear that some part of the Danish warrior aristocracy served in the Roman army.

The Crisis and Revival of Roman Gaul (250s–Early 4th Century CE)

1. The Crisis of Roman Gaul (250s–280s CE)

During the mid-3rd century CE, Roman Gaul faced a period of severe instability, coinciding with the broader Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE).

• Barbarian Invasions:

  • The Franks, Alemanni, and Vandals launched multiple incursions across the Rhine frontier, sacking cities and disrupting trade.
  • The Goths and other Germanic groups added further pressure on Rome’s borders.

• Political Instability:

  • The collapse of central authority led to usurpations and local rebellions.
  • In 260 CE, Postumus, a Roman general, declared the Gallic Empire, breaking away from Rome and ruling Gaul, Britain, and parts of Spain until 274 CE, when Emperor Aurelian reconquered the region.

• Economic Decline:

  • The destruction of cities and trade networks led to widespread economic hardship.
  • The debasement of Roman currency and rising taxation further weakened the Gallic economy.

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2. The Revival of Roman Gaul (Early 4th Century CE)

The situation improved significantly in the early 4th century CE, as a period of recovery and prosperity took hold.

• The Tetrarchy and Constantine’s Reforms:

  • Diocletian (r. 284–305 CE) restructured the empire, restoring order and military strength.
  • Constantine I (r. 306–337 CE) further stabilized the region, reinforcing defenses along the Rhine and establishing new military bases.

• Economic Recovery:

  • With barbarian invasions subdued, trade and agriculture flourished again.
  • Cities such as Treverorum (modern Trier) became imperial residences, reinforcing Roman authority in the West.

• Rise of Christianity:

  • Until 312 CE, Christians had faced periodic persecution, particularly under emperors like Diocletian.
  • After Constantine’s conversion in 312 CE, Christianity spread rapidly across Gaul and the empire, reshaping its cultural and religious landscape.
  • Major cities, including Lugdunum (Lyon), Treverorum (Trier), and Arelate (Arles), became key Christian centers.

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Conclusion: A Period of Transformation

The 250s–280s CE marked a time of crisis in Roman Gaul, with barbarian invasions, political fragmentation, and economic decline threatening the region. However, in the early 4th century CE, reforms under Diocletian and Constantine I brought a revival, leading to a resurgence of prosperity and the rapid spread of Christianity, setting the stage for the Christianization of the empire and the transformation of Late Antiquity.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (244–387 CE): Crisis, Reform, and Transformation

The age 244–387 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe encompasses a critical period marked by profound imperial instability, extensive administrative and economic reforms, significant cultural and religious developments, and major transformations within the Roman Empire.

Military Anarchy and Imperial Fragmentation (244–267 CE)

Following the collapse of the Severan dynasty, Rome descends into military anarchy, characterized by frequent changes in imperial leadership, widespread economic disruption, and intensified external pressures from Germanic and Persian incursions. Economic decline and provincial autonomy grow as centralized authority weakens.

Aurelian's Restoration and Economic Reforms (268–279 CE)

Emperor Aurelian (270–275 CE) briefly restores imperial unity, reconquering breakaway territories and initiating critical economic reforms. He constructs defensive fortifications such as Rome's Aurelian Walls, revitalizing stability and temporarily reversing economic deterioration.

Diocletian's Reforms and the Tetrarchy (280–303 CE)

Diocletian ascends in 284 CE, significantly reforming administrative, military, and economic structures through the establishment of the Tetrarchy—a system designed to stabilize governance by dividing power among four emperors. His policies include provincial restructuring, fortified frontiers, currency stabilization, and the Edict on Maximum Prices.

Collapse of the Tetrarchy and Constantine’s Rise (304–315 CE)

The Tetrarchy disintegrates following Diocletian’s retirement in 305 CE, leading to intense civil wars. Constantine the Great emerges victorious at the Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 CE), issuing the landmark Edict of Milan (313 CE), which grants religious tolerance to Christianity and reshapes imperial religious policy.

Constantine's Consolidation and the Council of Nicaea (316–327 CE)

Constantine consolidates imperial authority, establishing the new imperial capital, Constantinople, in 324 CE. His reign sees the First Council of Nicaea (325 CE), decisively shaping Christian doctrine through the Nicene Creed, significantly impacting religious uniformity and ecclesiastical structures.

Dynastic Rivalries and Imperial Instability (328–351 CE)

Following Constantine’s death, dynastic rivalries erupt among his sons—Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans—leading to internal conflict, division of the empire, and instability. The assassination of Constans (350 CE) by the usurper Magnentius further destabilizes the empire, underscoring deep-seated political vulnerabilities.

Cultural Flourishing and Christian Symbolism (352–363 CE)

Cultural life thrives despite political uncertainties, notably illustrated by the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (359 CE). Christian symbolism increasingly permeates artistic and intellectual expression, transforming classical Roman traditions through integration with Christian narratives and iconography.

Imperial Division and Valentinian Dynasty (364–375 CE)

Valentinian I divides imperial responsibilities with his brother Valens in 364 CE, establishing a precedent for administrative separation between Western and Eastern empires. His reign sustains regional prosperity, fortifies frontier defenses, and navigates religious tensions, reflecting complex internal dynamics.

Gothic Crisis and Imperial Struggles (376–387 CE)

The Gothic influx of 376 CE triggers severe crises, culminating in the catastrophic Battle of Adrianople (378 CE), where Emperor Valens perishes. Theodosius I’s subsequent rule attempts imperial recovery, notably through treaties integrating Gothic tribes as federate allies, and the Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE), which declares Nicene Christianity the empire’s official faith.

Legacy of the Age

The age 244–387 CE profoundly reshapes Mediterranean Southwest Europe through cycles of crisis, reform, and transformation. Among its enduring legacies are the restructuring of imperial governance, the rise and consolidation of Christianity as the official religion, and resilient cultural developments. The Roman influence deeply shapes Western civilization, evident in the widespread adoption of Romance languages derived from Latin, the numerical system, the modern Western alphabet and calendar, and the establishment of Christianity as a major world religion. Christianity, introduced into Spain in the first century, becomes widespread in urban centers by the second century but gains significant influence in rural areas only by the late fourth century. Despite the emergence of heretical sects, the Spanish Church remains subordinate to the Bishop of Rome, shaping the region’s religious identity for centuries.

Magnentius' Rise to Power and the Overthrow of Constans (350 CE)

Magnus Magnentius, a pagan of German descent, was born in Samarobriva (modern Amiens, Gaul) and rose to prominence as a distinguished soldier. By 350 CE, he commanded the Herculians and Iovians, two elite imperial guard units, giving him significant military influence (Zosimus, ii.58).

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1. Growing Discontent with Constans

• Emperor Constans, ruler of the Western Roman Empire, had become increasingly unpopular among the legions.
• His arbitrary rule and favoritism alienated both the army and the Roman elite.
• By 350 CE, discontent in the ranks of the military had reached a breaking point.

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2. The Army Proclaims Magnentius Emperor (January 18, 350 CE)

• On January 18, 350 CE, in Autun (modern France), the army elevated Magnentius to the rank of Augustus, openly declaring rebellion against Constans.
• Magnentius, a capable general and popular leader, quickly gained support from the military and key western provinces.

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3. The Fall of Constans and the Beginning of Civil War

• Upon learning of Magnentius’ usurpation, Constans fled southward toward Spain, seeking refuge.
• He was caught and executed by Magnentius' forces in early 350 CE, leaving Magnentius in control of the Western Roman Empire.
• This triggered a civil war with Constantius II, who, as the last surviving son of Constantine the Great, vowed to avenge his brother’s death.

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4. The Struggle for the Empire

• The civil war between Magnentius and Constantius II lasted from 350 to 353 CE, culminating in:
  • The Battle of Mursa (351 CE)—one of the bloodiest battles in Roman history, where Magnentius was defeated.
  • The final Roman campaign in Gaul (353 CE), where Magnentius, losing support, fled into exile and committed suicide.

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5. Conclusion: A Failed Bid for Power

• Though Magnentius successfully overthrew Constans, he was ultimately unable to defeat Constantius II, leading to his downfall in 353 CE.
• His pagan beliefs and anti-Christian stance may have also contributed to his loss of elite and imperial support.
• The civil war significantly weakened the Western Roman military, paving the way for future instability and external invasions.

Magnentius' brief rule and ultimate defeat exemplified the power struggles and fragmentation that plagued the Roman Empire in the 4th century, foreshadowing further internal conflicts and the eventual fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Constans, abandoned by all except a handful of retainers, is slain shortly afterwards by a troop of light cavalry near the Pyrenees.

Magnentius quickly attracts the loyalty of the provinces in Britannia, Gaul, and Hispania, in part because he proves to be far more tolerant towards both Christians and Pagans.

He applies his control on Italia and Africa through the election of his men to the most important offices.

Magnentius Proclaims Magnus Decentius as Caesar (Winter 350/351 CE)

Following his usurpation of the Western Roman Empire in 350 CE, Magnentius faced the looming threat of Constantius II, who ruled the Eastern Roman Empire and sought to avenge the murder of his brother, Constans. To strengthen his rule and secure the northern frontier, Magnentius proclaimed Magnus Decentius, likely his brother, as Caesar, probably during the winter of 350/351 CE.

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1. The Role of Magnus Decentius

• Decentius was entrusted with the defense of Gaul and the Rhine frontier, a critical region vulnerable to Germanic invasions.
• By appointing a Caesar, Magnentius sought to consolidate his power in the West, allowing him to focus on fighting Constantius II in the East.
• The move also served to legitimize his rule, mirroring the Tetrarchic system established under Diocletian, where emperors had junior co-rulers.

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2. The Struggle Against Constantius II

• Despite these strategic moves, Magnentius suffered a crippling defeat at the Battle of Mursa (351 CE) against Constantius II, greatly weakening his position.
• As Magnentius’ power declined, so too did Decentius’ authority in Gaul.
• By 353 CE, after Constantius' final victory, both Magnentius and Decentius faced collapse.

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3. The End of the Usurpers (353 CE)

• Magnentius, seeing no path to victory, committed suicide in August 353 CE.
• Decentius, realizing his position was hopeless, also took his own life shortly after.
• With their deaths, Constantius II became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire, ending the last major civil war of the mid-4th century.

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4. Conclusion: A Short-Lived Attempt at Stability

• The appointment of Magnus Decentius as Caesar was a practical move to protect Gaul and the Rhine frontier, but it ultimately failed to stop Constantius II's advance.
• Their defeat marked the reunification of the empire under Constantius II, but the losses suffered in the civil war severely weakened the Western Roman military, making it more vulnerable to future external invasions.

Magnentius’ attempt to maintain a breakaway empire ultimately collapsed, demonstrating the chronic instability of the late Roman Empire, where military usurpations frequently led to destructive civil wars.

 

Magnentius prepares for the war with Constantius by stripping the borders of Gaul of their defenses and seeking aid from the Germans on the Rhine frontier.

Some inconclusive diplomatic activity occurs between the Roman emperor Constantius II and the usurper Magnentius.

When Constantius' forces seize some of the latter's territory in Italy, Magnentius flees west to Gaul to hide among his people.

To divert some of the emperor's attention from him, Magnentius sends one of his servants to Antioch to kill the Caesar Gallus, whom Constantius has placed in charge of the Roman East, but this action comes to nothing.

The Franks and Alamanni on the Rhine frontier now seize the opportunity presented by the absence of the best Roman forces in the civil war to overrun much of eastern Gaul and Raetia.

Libanius claims that they were incited to do so by letters from Constantius, in order to create a diversion in Magnentius' rear.

The Germanic coalition defeats a Roman army on the German frontier in 352, taking control of forty towns between the Moselle and the Rhine.