Cerinthus, a Jewish-Christian teacher, establishes a gnostic sect in the Roman province of Asia that flourishes around 100.

All we know about Cerinthus comes from the writing of his theological opponents.

Contrary to proto-orthodox Christianity, Cerinthus's school follows the Jewish law, denying that the Supreme God had made the physical world, and denying the divinity of Jesus.

Teaching that the world was created either by a Demiurge (inferior deity) or by angels, he maintains that Jesus was merely human until his baptism, when he received a divine energy that had guided him in his ministry but left him at the crucifixion.

Like many early Christians, Cerinthus teaches that Jesus would establish a thousand-year reign of sensuous pleasure after the Second Coming but before the General Resurrection, a view that would be defined as heretical at the Council of Nicea in 325.

Cerinthus uses a version of the gospel of Matthew as scripture.

Teaching at a time when Christianity's relation to Judaism and to Greek philosophy has not yet been clearly defined, in his association with the Jewish law and his modest assessment of Jesus, he is similar to the Ebionites, a Jewish Christian sect that lives in and around Judea and Palestine, and to other Jewish Christians.

In defining the world's creator as the demiurge, he matches Greek philosophy and anticipates Alexandrine gnosticism.

His description of Christ as a bodiless spirit that dwelled temporarily in the man Jesus matches the Gnosticism of Valentius.

Near East (136–147 CE): Aftermath of Revolt, Exclusion from Jerusalem, and Rise of Gnosticism

Following the catastrophic suppression of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, the Near East enters a period marked by severe Roman restrictions and evolving religious thought. Although Roman persecution of Jews eases somewhat after Emperor Hadrian’s death in 138 CE, strict prohibitions remain in force. Jews are explicitly barred from Jerusalem, permitted entry only once a year on Tisha B'Av, a solemn day commemorating the destruction of both Temples. The devastation of the revolt has left Jewish communities severely diminished, with over half a million casualties and extensive depopulation as thousands are sold into slavery, scattering Jewish populations across the Roman Empire and beyond.

During this same era, new forms of religious expression emerge prominently in Alexandria, a vibrant center of theological thought. Basilides, a key mid-second-century proponent of Gnosticism, claims to transmit secret teachings originally imparted by the Apostles Peter and Matthias. His principal work, the Exegetica, is a biblical commentary composed of twenty-four books, though only fragments survive. Basilides' followers, known as the Basilideans, constitute an influential sect within the broader Gnostic movement, characterized by esoteric interpretations of Christian scripture and teachings that stress mystical knowledge (gnosis) as the key to salvation.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 136 to 147 CE solidifies the ongoing Roman restrictions on Jewish life, reshaping Jewish identity into a diaspora existence. Simultaneously, the growth of sects such as the Basilideans indicates increasing diversity within early Christian thought, setting the stage for enduring theological debates that will profoundly influence religious developments throughout the Roman world.

Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, leader of the church in Anatolia, and a defender of orthodoxy, opposes Marcion and other gnostic teachers.

He visits Rome in 155 to discuss with its bishop the disputed date for the celebration of Easter; the two agree that the Eastern and Western churches will continue their divergent usages.

Following his return to Smyrna, Polycarp is supposedly arrested, tried, and burned to death, his martyrdom aided and abetted by a mob of Jews and pagans. (The oldest known narrative of a Christian martyr, contained in a letter from the church of Smyrna, recounts his trial and execution. Irenaeus will, some decades hence, assert that Polycarp was a disciple of Saint John, making him a living link between the Apostles and the church of the later second century CE. A letter addressed to Polycarp by the martyred Ignatius of Antioch survives, along with one letter—or perhaps a combination of two—by Polycarp to the Philippians that illuminates early Christian doctrine, organization, and use of Scripture.)

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (148–159 CE): Religious Debates and Roman Authority

The era 148–159 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is notable for important religious developments and early indications of Rome's central role in Christian doctrinal discussions. This period highlights interactions between prominent early Christian figures and significant religious controversies.

Polycarp's Visit to Rome and the Paschal Controversy

During the pontificate of Pope Anicetus, the aged Polycarp of Smyrna, a disciple of John the Evangelist, visits Rome to discuss the celebration of Passover. Polycarp and the Church of Smyrna celebrate the crucifixion on the fourteenth day of Nisan, coinciding with the Jewish Passover, regardless of the weekday. In contrast, the Roman Church celebrates Pasch (Easter) on Sunday, commemorating Jesus' resurrection.

Although Polycarp and Anicetus fail to reach an agreement on a unified date for the celebration, Anicetus permits Polycarp and his church to maintain their traditional observance. This divergence initiates the Paschal controversy, which intensifies in subsequent centuries.

Visits by Hegesippus and Early Significance of the Roman See

The historian Hegesippus also visits Rome during Anicetus’s pontificate, reflecting the increasing prominence and importance of the Roman See in early Christian communities. This visit underscores the Roman Church's emerging role as a focal point of doctrinal and ecclesiastical authority.

Anicetus's Opposition to Heresies

Pope Anicetus actively opposes emerging religious movements perceived as heretical, notably Montanism, Gnosticism, and Marcionism. He becomes the first Roman bishop documented to explicitly condemn such teachings, reinforcing the doctrinal authority of Rome and setting precedents for ecclesiastical orthodoxy.

Additionally, Anicetus issues specific regulations, such as decreeing that priests must not have long hair—a measure possibly intended to distinguish orthodox clergy from Gnostic practitioners, known for wearing their hair long.

Continued Economic Prosperity and Provincial Integration

Under Antoninus Pius, Mediterranean Southwest Europe maintains its robust economic growth, with Iberia continuing to be a key provider of exports such as gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Sustained provincial integration contributes significantly to the region's ongoing prosperity.

Infrastructure and Urban Development

Antoninus Pius continues emphasizing infrastructure projects and urban improvements, enhancing connectivity, trade, and public amenities. These efforts further solidify the empire’s economic and administrative efficiency, benefiting both urban and rural populations.

Cultural and Intellectual Vibrancy

Cultural and intellectual life continues to thrive, supported by Antoninus’s patronage. Literary, philosophical, and scientific endeavors flourish, maintaining Rome’s sophisticated intellectual traditions and scientific inquiries.

Legacy of the Era

The era 148–159 CE is marked by significant religious debates, emphasizing Rome’s emerging role as a center of ecclesiastical authority and doctrinal definition. Coupled with sustained economic prosperity and cultural vibrancy, these developments profoundly shape the trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe, influencing religious, social, and cultural dynamics for generations to come.

The aged Polycarp of Smyrna, a disciple of John the Evangelist, visited Rome to discuss the celebration of Passover with Pope Anicetus, according to Irenaeus.

Polycarp and his Church of Smyrna celebrate the crucifixion on the fourteenth day of Nisan, which coincides with Pesach (or Passover) regardless of which day of the week upon this date falls, while the Roman Church celebrates the Pasch on Sunday—the weekday of Jesus' resurrection.

The two do not agree on a common date, but Anicetus concedes to Polycarp and the Church of Smyrna the ability to retain the date to which they are accustomed.

The controversy is to grow heated in the following centuries.

The Christian historian Hegesippus also visits Rome during Anicetus' pontificate.

This visit is often cited as a sign of the early importance of the Roman See.

Anicetus is the first Roman Bishop to condemn heresy by forbidding Montanism.

He also actively opposes the Gnostics and Marcionism.

According to Liber Pontificalis, Anicetus decreed that priests are not allowed to have long hair (perhaps because the Gnostics wore long hair).

Valentinus leaves Rome for Cyprus in about 154 with the elevation of Anicetus as Bishop of Rome.

In Adversus Valentinianos, iv, Tertullian writes: Valentinus had expected to become a bishop, because he was an able man both in genius and eloquence.

Being indignant, however, that another obtained the dignity by reason of a claim which confessorship had given him, he broke with the church of the true faith.

Just like those (restless) spirits which, when roused by ambition, are usually inflamed with the desire of revenge, he applied himself with all his might to exterminate the truth; and finding the clue of a certain old opinion, he marked out a path for himself with the subtlety of a serpent.

Commonly dismissed, we cannot know the accuracy of this statement, since it is delivered by his orthodox adversary Tertullian, but according to a tradition reported in the late fourth century by Epiphanius, he withdrew to Cyprus, where he continued to teach and draw adherents.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (160–171 CE): Philosophical Engagements and Early Christian Debates

The era 160–171 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is notable for significant philosophical and religious developments, marked by the influential reign of Marcus Aurelius, cultural advancements in art, and intense philosophical debates within the burgeoning Christian community.

Marcus Aurelius and Stoic Philosophy

During this period, Marcus Aurelius, already empowered as imperial heir and educated by prominent tutors in Rome and Athens, embraces Stoicism. His philosophical transition from rhetoric to Stoicism profoundly shapes his reign, emphasizing rational self-control, ethical reflection, and the pursuit of virtue, significantly influencing Roman intellectual and cultural life.

Artistic Innovations: Roman Sarcophagi

Artistic expression continues to flourish, notably through the sophisticated "Roman type" sarcophagi, exemplified by the Niobid Sarcophagus (ca. 160–170 CE). These sarcophagi, carved in high relief with intricate representations of mythological scenes, battles, and decorative garlands, underscore the cultural sophistication and artistic accomplishments of the era.

Justin Martyr and Christian Apologetics

The Samaritan Christian theologian Justin Martyr, well-versed in Stoic, Peripatetic, Pythagorean, and Platonic traditions, significantly contributes to Christian intellectual discourse. Justin emigrates to Rome during the reign of Antoninus Pius, where he establishes a philosophical school and authors influential treatises, notably his two Apologies, Dialogue with Trypho, and On the Resurrection.

In 165 CE, after public philosophical disputes, particularly with the cynic philosopher Crescens, Justin and six companions are tried by Junius Rusticus, the urban prefect, and subsequently executed. The martyrdom of Justin preserves crucial historical records of early Christian persecution and doctrinal defense.

Tatian’s Influence and Controversial Legacy

One of Justin’s prominent pupils, Tatian, an ethnic Assyrian who encounters Christianity in Rome, emerges as a significant yet controversial figure. Rejecting pagan practices and convinced by Old Testament writings, Tatian converts to Christianity and opens his own philosophical school in Rome.

Following Justin's martyrdom, Tatian becomes involved in theological controversies, notably espousing Encratitic (ascetic) views and reportedly associating with Gnostic leader Valentinius. His subsequent expulsion from the orthodox community prompts him to leave Rome. Later sources suggest Tatian establishes a school in Mesopotamia with notable influence across Syria, Cilicia, and Pisidia, although these accounts remain uncertain.

Tatian authors influential works, notably the Oratio ad Graecos, a discursive critique of paganism asserting Christianity's ancient and rational foundations. His Diatessaron, a harmonized narrative synthesizing the four canonical Gospels, becomes widely influential, especially in Syria during the third and fourth centuries.

Cultural Continuity and Intellectual Life

This period maintains robust cultural and intellectual vitality under Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. Literary, philosophical, and artistic endeavors flourish, demonstrating the era’s sophisticated engagement with diverse intellectual traditions and philosophical debates.

Economic Stability and Urban Infrastructure

Mediterranean Southwest Europe continues experiencing stable economic growth and urban development, supported by imperial patronage and sustained provincial integration. Continued investments in infrastructure, trade networks, and urban amenities enhance economic prosperity and administrative efficiency throughout the region.

Legacy of the Era

The era 160–171 CE is distinguished by significant philosophical engagements and vibrant religious debates within early Christianity. Marcus Aurelius’s embrace of Stoicism, the artistic advancements exemplified by Roman sarcophagi, and the intellectual contributions of figures such as Justin Martyr and Tatian profoundly influence Roman cultural and religious developments, leaving lasting legacies for subsequent generations.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (148–159 CE): Religious Debates and Roman Authority

The era 148–159 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is notable for important religious developments and early indications of Rome's central role in Christian doctrinal discussions. This period highlights interactions between prominent early Christian figures and significant religious controversies.

Polycarp's Visit to Rome and the Paschal Controversy

During the pontificate of Pope Anicetus, the aged Polycarp of Smyrna, a disciple of John the Evangelist, visits Rome to discuss the celebration of Passover. Polycarp and the Church of Smyrna celebrate the crucifixion on the fourteenth day of Nisan, coinciding with the Jewish Passover, regardless of the weekday. In contrast, the Roman Church celebrates Pasch (Easter) on Sunday, commemorating Jesus' resurrection.

Although Polycarp and Anicetus fail to reach an agreement on a unified date for the celebration, Anicetus permits Polycarp and his church to maintain their traditional observance. This divergence initiates the Paschal controversy, which intensifies in subsequent centuries.

Visits by Hegesippus and Early Significance of the Roman See

The historian Hegesippus also visits Rome during Anicetus’s pontificate, reflecting the increasing prominence and importance of the Roman See in early Christian communities. This visit underscores the Roman Church's emerging role as a focal point of doctrinal and ecclesiastical authority.

Anicetus's Opposition to Heresies

Pope Anicetus actively opposes emerging religious movements perceived as heretical, notably Montanism, Gnosticism, and Marcionism. He becomes the first Roman bishop documented to explicitly condemn such teachings, reinforcing the doctrinal authority of Rome and setting precedents for ecclesiastical orthodoxy.

Additionally, Anicetus issues specific regulations, such as decreeing that priests must not have long hair—a measure possibly intended to distinguish orthodox clergy from Gnostic practitioners, known for wearing their hair long.

Continued Economic Prosperity and Provincial Integration

Under Antoninus Pius, Mediterranean Southwest Europe maintains its robust economic growth, with Iberia continuing to be a key provider of exports such as gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Sustained provincial integration contributes significantly to the region's ongoing prosperity.

Infrastructure and Urban Development

Antoninus Pius continues emphasizing infrastructure projects and urban improvements, enhancing connectivity, trade, and public amenities. These efforts further solidify the empire’s economic and administrative efficiency, benefiting both urban and rural populations.

Cultural and Intellectual Vibrancy

Cultural and intellectual life continues to thrive, supported by Antoninus’s patronage. Literary, philosophical, and scientific endeavors flourish, maintaining Rome’s sophisticated intellectual traditions and scientific inquiries.

Legacy of the Era

The era 148–159 CE is marked by significant religious debates, emphasizing Rome’s emerging role as a center of ecclesiastical authority and doctrinal definition. Coupled with sustained economic prosperity and cultural vibrancy, these developments profoundly shape the trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe, influencing religious, social, and cultural dynamics for generations to come.

Valentinus, the most intellectual of the Gnostic leaders, has formulated a gnosticism that appeals to followers both in the East and West.

The Western Valentinians of Italy teach a modified Docetism, attributing to Christ a "psychic" body, not fully "gnostic," but capable of salvation through perfect knowledge.

Eastern Valentinianism, thoroughly Docetist, claims that Christ inhabited a "pneumatic" body totally subject to the influence of the Holy Spirit.

Docetism (from the Greek word for "to seem"), quite a common form of early Christianity, from around 70 CE for about one hundred years, is the belief that Jesus' physical body was an illusion, as was his crucifixion; that is, Jesus only seemed to have a physical body and to physically die, but in reality he was incorporeal, a pure spirit, and hence could not physically die.

This belief treats the sentence "the Word was made Flesh" (John 1:14) as merely figurative.

Outside the argument of whether Jesus is God Himself or not, it is the concept that Jesus who came from heaven did so in the following manner.

His life in heaven did not cease in spirit so that he could become born in flesh, but rather from conception to birth and childhood he was still a spirit materialized in flesh the same way angels do.

He was a god (or God) incarnate.

In essence it is the first step toward being God Himself in flesh; otherwise the world would be in chaos during the pregnancy and infancy stages, free for Satan to be greater and do as he please, unless someone else rules heaven.

In fact, the pre-birth trinity of Jesus itself requires God not to leave heaven at all, but for his spirit in flesh as Jesus to be a microscopic minute portion of the Christian God.

The cosmopolitan hospitality to eastern religions may have allowed the first attested Christian community in Gaul to be established in Lugdunum in the second century, led by a bishop with the eastern name of Pothinus.

In 177 it also becomes the first in Gaul to suffer persecution and martyrdom.

The event is described in a letter from the Christians in Lugdunum to counterparts in Asia, later retrieved and preserved by Eusebius.

There is no record of a cause or a triggering event but mob violence against the Christians in the streets culminates in a public interrogation in the forum by the tribune and town magistrates.

The Christians publicly confess their faith and are imprisoned until the arrival of Legate of Lugdonensis, who gives his authority to the persecution.

About forty of the Christians are martyred—dying in prison, beheaded, or killed by beasts in the arena as a public spectacle.

Among the latter are Bishop Pothinus, Blandina, Doctor Attalus, Ponticus, and the deacon Sanctus of Vienne.

Their ashes are thrown into the Rhône.

Nevertheless, the Christian community either survives or is reconstituted, and under Bishop Irenaeus it continued to grow in size and influence.