Greeks, Medieval (Byzantines)
Nation | Defunct
532 CE to 1461 CE
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes, are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions.
They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world.
Greek colonies and communities have been historically established in most corners of the Mediterranean, but Greeks have always been centered around the Aegean Sea, where the Greek language has been spoken since antiquity.
Until the early 20th century, Greeks were uniformly distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, Pontus, Egypt, Cyprus and Constantinople; many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of the ancient Greek colonization.
In the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), a large-scale population exchange between Greece and Turkey transferred and confined ethnic Greeks almost entirely into the borders of the modern Greek state and Cyprus.
Other ethnic Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and in diaspora communities in a number of other countries.
Today, most Greeks are members of the Greek Orthodox Church.
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Waves of Huns, Goths, Visigoths, and Ostrogoths had invaded and plundered the Balkans beginning in the third century CE.
None of these invaders had permanently occupied territory.
Small Slavic groups had begun settling outlying regions in the fifth century, and by the seventh century the Slavs have overcome imperial Greek resistance and settled most of the Balkans.
The Slavs bring a more stable culture, retain their own language, and substantially slavicize the existing Greco-Roman social system.
Abu Bakr defeats the Roman army at Damascus in 635, then begins his conquest of Iran.
The Arab forces occupy the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon (which they rename Madain) in 637, and defeat the Sassanian army at Nahavand in 641-42.
Iran lies open to the invaders after this.
The Islamic conquest is aided by the material and social bankruptcy of the Sassanians; the native populations have little to lose by cooperating with the conquering power.
Moreover, the Muslims offer relative religious tolerance and fair treatment to populations that accept Islamic rule without resistance.
It is not until around 650, however, that resistance in Iran is quelled.
Conversion to Islam, which offers certain advantages, is fairly rapid among the urban population but occurs more slowly among the peasantry and the dihqans.
The reign of Khosrau II (591-628) is characterized by the wasteful splendor and lavishness of the court.
Khosrau II's power declines toward the end of his reign.
In fighting with the East Roman, or Byzantine, Empire (the successor to the eastern half of the Roman Empire), he enjoys initial successes, captures Damascus, and seizes the Holy Cross (upon which Christ presumably was crucified) in Jerusalem, but counterattacks by the emperor Heraclius bring enemy forces deep into Sassanian territory.
Years of warfare exhaust both the Greeks and the Iranians.
The later Sassanians are further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers.
These factors will facilitate the Arab invasion later in the seventh century.
The confrontations between Syrian, or northern, Arabs—represented by the Ghassanids—and the fresh waves of nomads moving north out of the Arabian Peninsula is not new to the history of the Jordan region and will continue to manifest itself into the modern era.
Contact with the Christian Ghassanids is an important source of the impulse to monotheism that flows back into Arabia with the nomads, preparing the ground there for the introduction of Islam.
By the time of his death in CE 632, the Prophet Muhammad and his followers had brought most of the tribes and towns of the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of the new monotheistic religion of Islam (literally, submission, or surrender), which is conceived of as uniting the individual believer, the state, and the society under the omnipotent will of God.
Islamic rulers therefore exercise both temporal and religious authority.
Adherents of Islam, called Muslims (those who submit to the will of God), collectively form the House of Islam, or Dar al Islam.
Muawiyah—the governor of Syria and leader of a branch of Muhammad's tribe, the Quraysh of Mecca—proclaims himself caliph after Ali's murder, and founds a dynasty—the Umayyad—that makes its capital in Damascus.
Near East (532–675 CE): Rise and Expansion of Islam
The Near East from 532 to 675 CE experiences profound transformations, primarily driven by the emergence and rapid expansion of Islam, a new monotheistic faith that challenges and reshapes the region's religious, political, and social landscapes.
Early Byzantine Context and Christian Developments
The period begins with Christian glorification continuing under Byzantine emperor Justinian (527–565 CE), who rebuilds the Church of the Resurrection (Holy Sepulchre) in Jerusalem and establishes many churches, monasteries, and hospices. Christianity spreads into Nubia around 540 CE, notably through Monophysite missionaries sent by Empress Theodora, creating strong ecclesiastical links with Coptic Christianity in Egypt.
In 541 CE, the Plague of Justinian, first reported by historian Procopius from Pelusium near Suez, severely affects the region, contributing to the weakening of Byzantine rule.
Prelude to Islamic Expansion
Arabia experiences significant changes with the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen suffering catastrophic breaches in 570 or 575 CE, leading to large-scale migrations and signaling the decline of South Arabian kingdoms. In 570 CE, the Prophet Muhammad is born in Mecca, marking a pivotal turning point in Arabian history.
King Khosrow I of Persia intervenes in South Arabia around this period, establishing control over Yemen and challenging Byzantine influence in the Red Sea region.
Birth and Rapid Spread of Islam
In 610 CE, Muhammad begins preaching a monotheistic faith, Islam, based on revelations compiled into the Quran, a sacred text believed by Muslims to be the verbatim word of God. Central tenets include the Five Pillars of Islam—the shahada (declaration of faith), prayer (salat), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawm), and pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).
Muhammad's teachings quickly gain followers, leading to the establishment of a unified Islamic state. After his death in 632 CE, his successors, known as caliphs, expand Islamic authority across Arabia and beyond.
Islamic Conquests and Administration
The Rashidun Caliphate rapidly expands into Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Persia. In 636 CE, under General Khalid ibn al-Walid, the Arabs decisively defeat Byzantine forces at the Battle of Yarmouk, leading to the capture of Jerusalem in 638 CE. Caliph Umar designates Jerusalem as the third holiest city in Islam, after Mecca and Medina.
Islamic forces, under Amr ibn al-As, invade Egypt in 639 CE, capturing the fortress of Babylon (Bab al-Yun) in 641 CE. Alexandria surrenders in 641 CE, and the Arabs establish a new capital at Al-Fustat (present-day Old Cairo). Under Arab rule, Coptic Christians enjoy religious autonomy, marking a stark contrast with previous Byzantine persecution.
Islamic armies enter Nubia in 642 and again in 652 CE, but the resilient Nubians force them to withdraw after an armistice. Subsequent treaties establish peaceful relations, facilitating trade and intermarriage, contributing gradually to the region's arabization.
Societal Transformation and Religious Integration
Islamic rule introduces sharia (Islamic law), governing spiritual, ethical, and social aspects of life, and defines relationships with non-Muslim communities under the dhimmi system, permitting religious freedom in exchange for taxes and political allegiance.
The conquest significantly reshapes the linguistic and cultural identity of the region. Arabic gradually supplants Greek, Aramaic, and Coptic languages, embedding Islamic culture deeply into the societal fabric.
Consolidation under the Umayyads
After the First Islamic Civil War (Fitna), Mu'awiya I founds the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 CE, establishing its capital in Damascus. Under Umayyad rule, Islamic influence extends further into North Africa, establishing the city of Kairouan in 670 CE and initiating naval confrontations with Byzantium, including early raids on Constantinople from 668 to 674 CE.
Legacy of the Age
The period 532 to 675 CE fundamentally reshapes the Near East, transforming it into a predominantly Islamic region and laying the groundwork for the expansive Islamic civilization that profoundly influences subsequent historical, religious, and cultural developments across the Mediterranean, Africa, and beyond.
The religious persecutions in Egypt and the growing pressure of taxation has engendered great hatred of Constantinople by the seventh century.
As a result, the Egyptians offer little resistance to the conquering armies of Islam.
The Arab conquest of Egypt is perhaps the most important event to occur in Egypt since the unification of the Two Lands by King Menes.
The conquest of the country by the armies of Islam under the command of the Muslim hero, Amr ibn al As, transforms Egypt from a predominantly Christian country to a Muslim country in which the Arabic language and culture are adopted even by those who cling to their Christian or Jewish faiths.
The conquest of Egypt is part of the Arab/Islamic expansion that had begun when the Prophet Muhammad died and Arab tribes began to move out of the Arabian Peninsula into Iraq and Syria.