A series of local dynasties appears in Greater Iran and Central Asia: the Tahirids (821-873), the Saffarids (867-ca. 1495), and the Samanids (819-1005).

The same process repeats in the West: Spain had broken away from the Abbasid Caliphate in 756, Morocco in 788, Tunisia in 800, and Egypt in 868.

The growing prominence of Turks in military and in political affairs, in addition to the cleavages between Arabs and Iranians and between Sunnis and Shias, give cause for discontent and rivalry at court.

Nomadic, Turkic-speaking warriors have been moving out of Central Asia into Transoxiana (i.e., across the Oxus River) for more than a millennium.

The Abbasid caliphs had begun importing Turks as slave-warriors (Mamluks) early in the ninth century.

The imperial palace guards of the Abbasids were Mamluks who were originally commanded by free Iraqi officers.

By 833, however, Mamluks themselves are officers and gradually, because of their greater military proficiency and dedication, they begin to occupy high positions at court.

The mother of Caliph Mutasim (who comes to power in 833) had been a Turkish slave, and her influence is substantial.

The Turkish commanders, no longer checked by their Iranian and Arab rivals at court by the tenth century, are able to appoint and depose caliphs.

The political power of the caliphate is fully separate from its religious function for the first time.

The Mamluks continue to permit caliphs to come to power because of the importance of the office as a symbol for legitimizing claims to authority.
 
A military family known as the Buwayhids occupies Baghdad in 945 after subjugating western Iran.

Shias from the Iranian province of Daylam south of the Caspian Sea, the Buyids continue to permit Sunni Abbasid caliphs to ascend to the throne.

The humiliation of the caliphate at being manipulated by Shias, and by Iranian ones at that, is immense.

The Sunni-Shia split had weakened the effectiveness of Islam as a single unifying force and as a sanction for a single political authority.

Although the intermingling of various linguistic and cultural groups contribute greatly to the enrichment of Islamic civilization, it also is a source of great tension and contributes to the decay of Abbasid power.

There is trouble in the south of Iraq.

Ali ibn Muhammad (Ali the Abominable) founds a state of enslaved blacks known as Zanj in 869.

The Zanj bring a large part of southern Iraq and southwestern Iran under their control and in the process enslave many of their former masters.

The Zanj Rebellion is finally put down in 883, but not before causing great suffering.

Near East (820 – 963 CE): Fragmented Caliphate, Autonomous Dynasties, and Christian Strongholds

Geographic and Environmental Context

The Near East includes Israel, Egypt, Sudan, western Saudi Arabia, western Yemen, most of Jordan, southwestern Cyprus, and western Turkey (Aeolia, Ionia, Doria, Lydia, Caria, Lycia, and the Troad).

• Egypt and the Nile Valley remained the agricultural backbone, linked to the Red Sea and Mediterranean.

• Levantine coasts (Tyre, Acre, Caesarea) connected the interior to maritime trade.

• Western Arabia and Yemen provided pilgrimage routes and Red Sea harbors.

• Western Turkey (Anatolian coast) featured Greek-founded cities, harbors, and fertile valleys, contested between Byzantines and Muslim raiders.

• Sudan was a transition to Nubian and Sahelian worlds, linked to the Nile.

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Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The Eastern Mediterranean climate supported cereals, olives, and vines in coastal and Anatolian zones.

• The Nile floods continued to sustain Egypt, though fluctuations periodically strained revenue.

• Arabian and Yemeni highlands offered terrace farming; arid interiors depended on oases and caravan routes.

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Societies and Political Developments

• Egypt:

  • The Abbasid caliphs appointed governors, but local autonomy grew.

  • In 868, Ahmad ibn Tulun established the Tulunid dynasty in Egypt and Syria, marking a major step toward independence.

  • Ibn Tulun built mosques and reformed tax systems; his dynasty endured until Fatimid conquest in 969.

• Levant:

  • Abbasid rule was nominal; Tulunid and later Ikhshidid governors administered.

  • Coastal cities retained prosperity, with Tyre particularly flourishing in glass and textile production.

• Western Arabia and Yemen:

  • The Abbasids remained custodians of Mecca and Medina, but real control was tenuous.

  • Zaydi imams rose in northern Yemen by the 9th century, establishing durable religious-political authority.

• Sudan/Nubia:

  • The Christian kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia remained strong, resisting Arab expansion south of Egypt.

  • The Baqt treaty with Muslim Egypt ensured trade and peace, exchanging slaves for goods.

• Western Turkey (Anatolia):

  • The Byzantine Empire contested Arab raiding from Cilicia and western Anatolia.

  • Coastal cities (Ephesus, Smyrna, Miletus) remained under Byzantine authority, though exposed to conflict.

• Southwestern Cyprus:

  • Divided between Byzantine and Abbasid influence, occasionally serving as a shared province (condominium) and raiding base.

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Economy and Trade

• Egypt: Nile agriculture (wheat, barley, flax) supported urban markets; Alexandria remained a hub for Mediterranean commerce.

• Levantine coasts: exported glass, sugar, textiles, and ceramics; imported spices and metals.

• Arabia/Yemen: incense, aromatics, and horses moved via Red Sea ports to Egypt and Syria.

• Western Turkey: Byzantine Anatolia produced olives, vines, and grain, and shipped timber and metals.

• Nubia/Sudan: ivory, gold, slaves, and ostrich feathers moved northward in exchange for textiles and wheat.

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Subsistence and Technology

• Irrigation and terrace systems in Yemen and Egypt maximized water management.

• Cisterns and aqueducts in Anatolia sustained towns through dry seasons.

• Shipbuilding: Red Sea and Mediterranean craft carried goods between ports.

• Craft industries: Egyptian linen, Levantine glass, Yemeni aromatics, and Anatolian wines.

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Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Nile River: Egypt’s transport backbone, linking Upper Egypt to Alexandria.

• Red Sea routes: ports in Arabia and Yemen tied the Indian Ocean to Egypt.

• Caravan tracks: Mecca–Medina pilgrim routes and incense roads across Yemen.

• Levantine coastlines: maritime links between Tyre, Cyprus, and Anatolia.

• Western Anatolian roads: tied Greek-founded cities to Constantinople and Byzantine networks.

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Belief and Symbolism

• Islam: Abbasid legitimacy endured, but local rulers (Tulunids, Zaydis) combined religious and political authority.

• Christianity: Nubia (Makuria, Alodia) remained deeply Christian, resisting Islamic advance. Byzantine Christianity thrived in western Anatolia and Cyprus.

• Judaism: Jewish communities in Egypt and the Levant participated actively in trade.

• Pilgrimage: Mecca and Medina drew pilgrims from across the Islamic world.

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Adaptation and Resilience

• Local autonomy (Tulunids in Egypt, Zaydis in Yemen) allowed adaptation to weakening Abbasid central control.

• Trade redundancy: Mediterranean ports, Red Sea lanes, and caravans provided alternative routes when conflict flared.

• Religious pluralism: Christians in Nubia and Byzantium, Muslims in Arabia and Egypt, Jews across cities — created overlapping networks of survival and resilience.

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Long-Term Significance

By 963 CE, the Near East had become a mosaic of autonomous powers:

• Tulunid Egypt had broken away from Baghdad.

• Zaydi Yemen established a long-lived religious state.

• Makuria and Alodia kept Christian Nubia independent.

• Byzantines held western Anatolia against Muslim raids.

• Levantine and Red Sea trade continued to knit the region into global exchanges.

This laid the foundations for the Fatimid conquest of Egypt (969), the growing significance of Nubian Christianity, and the sharpening of Byzantine–Islamic frontiers in Anatolia and Cyprus.

North Africa (820 – 963 CE): Aghlabid and Fatimid Transitions

Geographic and Environmental Context

North Africa includes the Maghreb littoral and inland from modern Morocco through Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya (west of Egypt and the Nile). It also includes Western Sahara.

• Anchors: the Atlas Mountains, Tell coastlands, Sahara fringes, and Ifriqiya (Tunisia–eastern Algeria–western Libya).

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The Medieval Warm Period provided favorable agricultural conditions in Tell plains and coastal valleys.

• Steppe and Sahara fringes remained arid; oases sustained date palms and caravan routes.

Societies and Political Developments

• Aghlabid dynasty (800–909): governed Ifriqiya under Abbasid suzerainty; built irrigation, mosques (Great Mosque of Kairouan).

• Fatimid dynasty: founded in 909 in Ifriqiya by the Ismaili movement; challenged Abbasid authority.

• Rustamid Ibadi imamate (Tahert, Algeria) flourished until Fatimid conquest in 909.

• Umayyads of Córdoba vied for influence in Morocco.

• Berber tribal confederations (Sanhaja, Zanata, Masmuda) shaped politics and mobility.

Economy and Trade

• Agriculture: wheat, olives, fruit in Tell and oases.

• Trans-Saharan trade: salt, gold, ivory, and slaves from West Africa moved north through Sanhaja networks.

• Coastal cities (Tunis, Tripoli, Ceuta) linked Maghreb to Mediterranean markets.

Belief and Symbolism

• Islam: Sunni in Aghlabid and Abbasid-linked centers; Ibadi among Rustamids; Fatimid Ismaili Shi‘ism rising.

• Berber traditions: tribal law mediated power alongside Islam.

Long-Term Significance

By 963, North Africa was divided between Fatimid Ismailis and Sunni rivals, with Berber tribes decisive in regional politics and trans-Saharan trade flourishing.

North Africa (916–927 CE)

Fatimid Consolidation, Berber Realignment, and Continued Regional Dynamism

Between 916 and 927 CE, North Africa witnesses the consolidation of the Fatimid Caliphate in Ifriqiya alongside the continuing political realignments among various Berber entities in Morocco and the western Maghreb.

In Ifriqiya, Caliph Ubaydallah al-Mahdi Billah (909–934 CE) further solidifies Fatimid rule from the newly established capital of Mahdia. Under his leadership, the Fatimids expand administrative control, strengthening economic foundations through robust Mediterranean trade and improved agricultural productivity. Al-Mahdi Billah effectively utilizes the support of Kutama Berbers, ensuring military stability and regional dominance.

In Morocco, the fragmented Idrisid Dynasty continues its gradual decline, with diminished central authority giving rise to increased autonomy among influential Berber tribes, notably the Miknasa and Maghrawa. This fragmentation enables these tribal confederations to develop independently, establishing stronger local political structures and economic networks.

The independent Emirate of Nekor in the Rif region maintains its prosperity through Mediterranean trade, preserving its economic and cultural autonomy. Along Morocco's Atlantic coast, the Barghawata confederation remains a distinctive political and religious entity, further asserting its independence.

In the Saharan region, Sijilmasa, strategically governed by influential Tuareg tribes, remains a critical trans-Saharan trade hub, solidifying its position as an indispensable center of commerce linking the Mediterranean to sub-Saharan Africa.

By the conclusion of 927 CE, the political landscape of North Africa reflects a clear Fatimid ascendancy in the east, marked by stability and economic growth. Concurrently, the western Maghreb maintains a dynamic, fragmented structure, characterized by autonomous Berber states and tribal confederations, setting the stage for continued regional evolution in subsequent decades.

North Africa (928–939 CE)

Fatimid Strength, Western Fragmentation, and Berber Autonomy

Between 928 and 939 CE, North Africa experiences the strengthening of the Fatimid Caliphate in the east, continued decentralization in Morocco, and sustained autonomy of diverse Berber entities.

In Ifriqiya, Fatimid rule under al-Mahdi Billah (909–934 CE) and his successor, al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah (934–946 CE), achieves significant consolidation. The capital al-Mahdiyya flourishes economically, bolstered by active Mediterranean trade and productive agriculture. Fatimid governance, marked by administrative efficiency and centralized Shia authority, brings stability and prosperity, further solidifying their rule in the central Maghreb.

Morocco continues to witness fragmentation amid the decline of the Idrisid Dynasty. Although Fez (Fès) remains an influential commercial and scholarly hub, political divisions lead to increased independence of powerful Berber confederations such as the Miknasa and Maghrawa, which begin establishing themselves as significant regional powers.

Autonomous entities, notably the Emirate of Nekor in northern Morocco, maintain their economic strength and cultural independence, thriving on Mediterranean trade with al-Andalus. Simultaneously, the coastal Barghawata confederation persists with its distinctive religious and cultural identity along Morocco’s Atlantic coast, maintaining its political autonomy.

The Saharan trading city-state of Sijilmasa, under the strategic oversight of influential Tuareg tribes, continues to prosper from lucrative trans-Saharan commerce, serving as a critical economic link between sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean.

By the end of 939 CE, North Africa is characterized by the firm establishment of Fatimid authority in the east, continued fragmentation and increasing regionalism in the west, and persistent autonomy among Berber polities, shaping a diverse and dynamic political landscape poised for future transformations.

The Fatimid Caliphate has grown to include Sicily and to stretch across North Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to Libya.

Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control had soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, which he rules from Mahdia, his newly built capital in Tunisia.

The Idrisids of Fés had been ousted in 927 by the Fatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa Berber allies.

After the Miknasa broke off relations with the Fatimids in 932 and formed an alliance with the Spain-based Umayyad Caliphate, the Fatimids mount a failed attempt in 933 to seize the Maghreb al-Aqsa (nowadays Morocco).