West Africa (964 – 1107 CE): Ghana’s Zenith, Sahelian Towns, and Forest Gateways

Geographic and Environmental Context

West Africa includes Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria.

• The Sahelian belt (Senegal–Niger valleys) anchored kingdoms like Ghana (Wagadu) and Takrur.

• The Niger Bend and inner Niger delta supported riverine farming, fishing, and trade, with towns such as Gao rising to prominence.

• The forest–savanna frontiers of modern Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana served as entry points for gold, kola, and ivory into Sahelian networks.

• In the east, Hausaland (northern Nigeria) consolidated into a mosaic of town-based polities linked to desert and savanna routes.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The Medieval Warm Period (c. 950–1250) brought more stable rainfall to the Sahel, supporting millet, sorghum, and livestock across wide zones.

• Flood-recession agriculture in the inner Niger delta flourished, producing cereals, vegetables, and fish surpluses.

• Periodic dry years still occurred, but ecological diversity across Sahel, savanna, and forest buffered subsistence.

Societies and Political Developments

• Ghana (Wagadu):

  • Reached its peak by the late 10th–11th centuries, ruling from Koumbi Saleh, with dual cities for indigenous and Muslim merchant populations.

  • Controlled the Awdaghust–Sijilmāsa caravan axis, extracting tribute and tolls on gold, salt, copper, and slaves.

  • Kings of Ghana patronized indigenous rituals but hosted Muslim scholars and traders, balancing dual authority.

• Takrur (Senegal valley):

  • Consolidated as a kingdom rivaling Ghana; rulers adopted Islam earlier than Ghana’s kings, fostering closer ties with North African merchants.

• Gao (Songhay ancestors):

  • Emerged as a rival Sahelian power on the eastern Niger; by the 11th century, Gao was a recognized kingdom with a Muslim ruling elite, noted in Arabic sources.

• Forest–savanna margins:

  • Mande-speaking traders and Akan ancestors channeled gold (Bambuk, Bure), kola nuts, and ivory northward.

  • Lineages in Upper Guinea and the Gold Coast consolidated towns, creating durable supply networks.

• Hausaland:

  • Urban communities at Kano, Katsina, Zaria grew into organized towns, each with ruling dynasties and fortified walls.

  • Early Hausa polities integrated farming, craft, and caravan trade.

• Benin region:

  • Edo-speaking communities clustered around chiefs; early forms of the Benin polity emerged in the 11th century.

Economy and Trade

• Gold–salt trade: Ghana mediated the movement of gold from Bambuk/Buré to Sijilmāsa and beyond, while Saharan salt moved south.

• Copper and iron: copper from Takedda and Air supplied smiths; local ironworking thrived in savanna belts.

• Agriculture: millet and sorghum in Sahel; African rice in Upper Guinea; yams and oil palm in forest margins.

• Livestock: cattle, sheep, and goats grazed in the Sahel; horses (imported from the Maghreb) became symbols of elite power.

• Slaves: captured in frontier wars, traded north across the Sahara, and incorporated into Sahelian households.

• Craft production: raffia cloth, iron tools, wooden sculptures, and leatherwork enriched markets.

Subsistence and Technology

• Farming systems: intensive irrigation and flood-recession farming in Senegal and Niger valleys.

• Pastoralism: transhumant cycles linked Sahel pastures with riverside gardens.

• Iron technology: bloomery furnaces supplied hoes, axes, spearheads, and ornaments.

• River transport: dugout canoes on the Senegal, Gambia, and Niger moved goods and people.

• Caravan technology: camels carried gold, salt, ivory, and textiles across the Sahara in organized trains.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Awdaghust ⇄ Sijilmāsa ⇄ Koumbi Saleh: Ghana’s critical trans-Saharan axis.

• Niger Bend ⇄ Gao ⇄ Air: eastern routes carrying copper, salt, and slaves.

• Senegal River ⇄ Takrur ⇄ Atlantic littoral: opening Sahelian trade toward the ocean, centuries before European contact.

• Forest tracks ⇄ Sahel towns: Mande and Akan traders linked forest resources to Sahel markets.

• Hausaland ⇄ Air ⇄ Sahara: Hausa towns connected to Saharan gateways for copper and textiles.

Belief and Symbolism

• Indigenous religions: earth shrines, ancestral spirits, and sacred groves legitimized land and kingship.

• Islam:

  • Spread among merchants, scholars, and some rulers (notably Takrur and Gao).

  • Muslim quarters in Ghana’s Koumbi Saleh flourished, while Ghana’s kings retained indigenous rituals.

• Symbolic economy: horses, gold ornaments, and elaborate burials marked elite power.

• Festivals synchronized agricultural and trading calendars, reinforcing community bonds.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Ecological complementarity: gold from forests, grain from Sahel, salt from Sahara ensured resilience.

• Political dualism: rulers balanced indigenous ritual authority with Muslim merchant literacy and diplomacy.

• Caravan redundancy: shifting routes ensured continuity even when climate or politics disrupted one path.

• Lineage networks: in forest and savanna, kin-based alliances stabilized trade and subsistence.

Long-Term Significance

By 1107 CE, West Africa stood at a high point of Sahelian power and trans-Saharan integration:

• Ghana (Wagadu) controlled the gold–salt axis at its zenith.

• Takrur rose in the Senegal valley as an Islamic kingdom.

• Gao emerged as a Muslim-led Sahelian power.

• Forest frontiers provided gold, kola, and ivory through Mande traders.

• Hausaland and Benin laid the foundations of durable polities.

This era established West Africa as a pivot of Afro-Eurasian trade, blending indigenous traditions with the growing influence of Islam, and setting the stage for the decline of Ghana and the rise of Mali in the 13th century.

Hausa people, who had been slowly moving west from Nubia and mixing in with the local Northern and Central Nigerian population, had established a number of strong states between 500 CE and 700 CE in what is now Northern and Central Nigeria and Eastern Niger.

With the decline of the Nok and Sokoto, who had previously controlled Central and Northern Nigeria between 800 BCE and 200 CE, the Hausa had been able to emerge as the new power in the region.

Closely linked with the Kanuri people of Kanem-Bornu (Lake Chad), the Hausa aristocracy adopts Islam in the eleventh century CE and the Hausa emirates emerge in present northern Nigeria.

Their territory lies above the confluence of the Niger and Benue rivers (in present-day northern Nigeria), between the Songhai empire in the west and that of the Kanem-Bornu, or Bornu, in the east.

The seven true Hausa states, or Hausa Bakwai (Biram, Daura, Gobir, Kano, Katsina, Rano, and Zaria [Zazzau]), and their seven outlying satellites, or Banza Bakwai (Zamfara, Kebbi, Yauri, Gwari, Nupe, Kororofa [Jukun], and Yoruba), have no central authority, will never combine in wars of conquest, and will therefore be frequently subject to domination from outside.

West Africa (1108 – 1251 CE): Ghana’s Decline, Sundiata’s Revolution, and Benin’s Consolidation

Geographic and Environmental Context

West Africa includes Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria.

• The Sahelian belt (Senegal–Niger valleys) anchored kingdoms like Ghana (Wagadu) and Takrur.

• The Niger Bend and inner Niger delta supported riverine farming, fishing, and trade, with towns such as Gao rising to prominence.

• The forest–savanna frontiers of modern Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana served as entry points for gold, kola, and ivory into Sahelian networks.

• In the east, Hausaland (northern Nigeria) consolidated into a mosaic of town-based polities linked to desert and savanna routes.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Generally favorable rains, with localized dry spells.

• Flood-recession agriculture in the Inland Delta remained productive.

Societies and Political Developments

• Ghana (Wagadu) declined under internal fissures, shifting trade, and pressure from nomads and rival states.

• In the upper Niger, Sundiata Keita forged the Mali polity (crowned after the Battle of Kirina, c. 1235), uniting Mande chiefdoms and seizing the goldfields’ arteries.

• Gao persisted as a Songhay kingdom; Takrur remained an Islamic river state.

• Hausaland: city-states expanded walls, markets, and dynastic courts.

• Benin region: Ogiso-era town clusters consolidated toward the early Oba monarchy.

Economy and Trade

• Mali’s control of Bambuk–Buré gold routes shifted the balance from Ghana; salt from Taghaza/ Taoudenni supplied the Sahel.

• Caravans: copper from Takedda, textiles from Ghadames–Ghat, and horses from the Maghreb flowed south; gold, slaves, ivory, and kola moved north.

• Agriculture: Sahel grains; Inland Delta rice and fish; forest yams and oil palm.

Subsistence and Technology

• Irrigation and floodplain management in Inland Delta; iron hoes and sickles increased yields.

• Camel logistics refined; caravanserais multiplied along trunk routes.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Upper Niger trunk (Niani–Kangaba) under Mali;

• Gao–Air–Takedda copper axis;

• Senegal–Takrur routes to the Atlantic edge;

• Hausa corridors through Kano and Katsina toward the Sahara.

Belief and Symbolism

• Islamic courts in Mali, Gao, Takrur sponsored mosques and jurists; indigenous rites persisted in rural hinterlands.

• Griots preserved royal epics (e.g., Sundiata), legitimating rule.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Political succession from Ghana to Mali preserved caravan security.

• Ecological spread—Sahel grains + floodplain rice + forest kola—hedged climate risk.

Long-Term Significance

By 1251, Mali had supplanted Ghana; Gao, Takrur, Hausa, and Benin matured—setting up a 14th-century boom in gold, cities, and Islamic learning.

Much of present-day Nigeria is divided long before 1500 into states, which can be identified with the modern ethnic groups that trace their history to the origins of these states.

These early states include the Yoruba kingdoms, the Edo kingdom of Benin, the Hausa cities, and Nupe.

In addition, numerous small states to the west and south of Lake Chad are absorbed or displaced in the course of the expansion of Kanem, which is centered to the northeast of Lake Chad.

Borno, initially the western province of Kanem, will become independent in the late fourteenth century.

Other states probably exist as well, but oral traditions and the absence of archaeological data do not permit an accurate dating of their antiquity.

West Africa (1252 – 1395 CE): Mali’s Gold Age, Songhay’s Ascent, and Hausa–Benin City Networks

Geographic and Environmental Context

West Africa includes Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria.

• The Sahelian belt (Senegal–Niger valleys) anchored kingdoms like Ghana (Wagadu) and Takrur.

• The Niger Bend and inner Niger delta supported riverine farming, fishing, and trade, with towns such as Gao rising to prominence.

• The forest–savanna frontiers of modern Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana served as entry points for gold, kola, and ivory into Sahelian networks.

• In the east, Hausaland (northern Nigeria) consolidated into a mosaic of town-based polities linked to desert and savanna routes.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The onset of the Little Ice Age (~1300) introduced greater rainfall variability in the Sahel; core river basins and floodplains remained productive.

• Caravan viability continued with route adjustments to oasis conditions.

Societies and Political Developments

• Mali Empire reached its zenith: Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337) centralized power, reformed finances, and performed the celebrated hajj (1324–1325), projecting Malian prestige across the Islamic world; Mansa Sulayman (r. 1341–1360) maintained stability.

• Songhay at Gao expanded autonomy under the Sonni dynasty (pre-Sunni Ali), positioning for later takeover of the Niger Bend.

• Hausa city-states (e.g., Kano, Katsina, Zaria) entrenched urban courts, craft guilds, and caravan diplomacy.

• Jolof confederation rose in Senegambia (mid-14th c.), shaping Atlantic-edge politics.

• Benin Kingdom consolidated the Oba monarchy (late 13th–14th c.), strengthening city walls, palace rituals, and regional trade.

Economy and Trade

• Gold from Bambuk–Buré and Wangara networks sustained Mali’s coin and credit circuits;

• Salt from Taghaza fed the Sahel; copper from Takedda supplied smiths; horses from the Maghreb armed elites.

• Agriculture: Sahel grains; Inland Delta rice/fish; forest kola, pepper, and palm products.

• Urban craft: cloth weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, and manuscript culture in Sahelian towns.

Subsistence and Technology

• Floodplain irrigation and rice paddies in the Inland Delta; millet–sorghum rotations across the Sahel; orchard and garden plots near cities.

• Camel caravans optimized with relay oases; riverine canoes moved grain and fish.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Niani–Timbuktu–Gao trunk within Mali; Gao–Air–Takedda; Takrur–Senegal; Hausa–Saharan routes through Air and Ajjer into the Maghreb; Benin–Nupe forest–savanna corridors to the Niger.

Belief and Symbolism

• Islam deepened in courts and trading towns (mosques, jurists, scholars); Timbuktu and Walata matured as centers of learning.

• Indigenous ritual remained strong in rural communities (earth shrines, rainmaking).

• Court pageantry—gold regalia, horse trappings—signaled sovereignty; griots preserved dynastic memory.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Route redundancy across Sahara and Sahel hedged against drought/war.

• Plural economies—grain, rice, fish, gold, salt, kola—spread risk.

• Urban institutions—guilds, mosques, market courts—stabilized exchange; kin/clan systems secured rural production.

Long-Term Significance

By 1395, West Africa was a constellation of powerful states and city networks—Mali at its height, Songhay rising, Hausa and Benin consolidating, Jolof emerging—bound into Afro-Eurasian circuits by gold, salt, and scholarship, and resilient enough to carry this prosperity into the 15th century.

The Muslim Sayfawa dynasty had established its rule over all Kanem by the twelfth century.

At the same time, the Kanembu people had drawn closer to the new rulers and increased the growing population in Njimi.

Although the Kanembu had become the main power-base of the Sayfuwa, Kanem's rulers have continued to travel frequently throughout the kingdom and especially towards Bornu, west of Lake Chad.

Herders and farmers alike recognize the government's power and acknowledge their allegiance by paying tribute.

Kanem's expansion had peaked during the long and energetic reign of Sayfawa dynast Mai Dunama Dabbalemi, who has initiated diplomatic exchanges with sultans in North Africa and apparently arranged for the establishment of a special hostel in Cairo to facilitate pilgrimages to Mecca.

Having declared jihad against the surrounding tribes, he had initiated an extended period of conquest.

After consolidating their territory around Lake Chad, the Fezzan region (in present-day Libya) has fallen under Kanem's authority, and the empire's influence extends westward to Kano (in present-day Nigeria), eastward to Ouaddaï, and southward to the Adamawa grasslands (in present-day Cameroon).

Dabbalemi has devised a system to reward military commanders with authority over the people they conquered, but this system has tempted military officers to pass their positions to their sons, thus transforming the office from one based on achievement and loyalty to the mai into one based on hereditary nobility.

Dabbalemi has able to suppress this tendency, but after his death in 1259, dissension among his sons will weaken the Sayfawa Dynasty ad dynastic feuds degenerate into civil war, and Kanem's outlying peoples soon cease paying tribute.

The Hausa states that had developed in the Sahel zone of Western Africa have become one of Africa's major powers.

Closely linked with the Kanuri people of Kanem-Bornu (Lake Chad) the the northeast, the Hausa aristocracy had adopted Islam in the eleventh century CE.

The architecture of the Hausa is perhaps one of the least known but most beautiful of the medieval age.

Many of their early mosques and palaces are bright and colorful and often include intricate engraving or elaborate symbols designed into the facade.

West Africa (1396–1539 CE): Empires, Gold, and the Atlantic Turn

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of West Africa includes the Sahelian and savanna zones stretching from the Senegal and Niger River basins across modern Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, as well as the forest and coastal belts of modern Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria. Anchoring landscapes included the Niger River’s inland delta, the Sahel’s grasslands, the forested Guinea coast, and the Atlantic seaboard with its lagoons and estuaries.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age brought modest cooling and rainfall variability. Sahelian zones experienced alternating drought and recovery, testing herders and farmers. Savanna and forest belts enjoyed relatively stable rainfall, sustaining yam and oil palm cultivation. Along the coast, seasonal monsoons shaped farming cycles, while the Atlantic upwelling enriched marine fisheries.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Sahel and savanna: Millet, sorghum, and rice supported large populations, with cattle, sheep, and camels managed in mixed herding systems.

• Forest belt: Yams, kola, palm oil, and plantains anchored subsistence, complemented by hunting and river fisheries.

• Urban centers: Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne, and other cities combined farming hinterlands with trade, scholarship, and crafts.

Technology & Material Culture

Iron smelting and blacksmithing flourished, supplying weapons, hoes, and ritual objects. Sahelian architecture—mud-brick mosques and palaces—defined skylines (Djinguereber Mosque, Askia’s Tomb). In the forest, the Benin court produced brass and ivory works. Textiles, leatherwork, and gold jewelry circulated widely. Manuscripts in Arabic script preserved Islamic scholarship in Timbuktu and other cities.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trans-Saharan routes: Caravans carried gold, kola, and captives north in exchange for salt, horses, and luxuries.

• River corridors: The Niger River served as an east–west artery for goods and ideas.

• Atlantic seaboard: Portuguese ships reached Senegal in the mid-15th century, later tapping the Gambia and Gold Coast, inaugurating direct Atlantic trade while older Saharan links persisted.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

Islam flourished in Sahelian capitals: mosques, Qur’anic schools, and zawiyas anchored faith and learning. Oral traditions of griots preserved epics and genealogies. In the forest zone, ritual kingship, sacred groves, and ancestral veneration structured societies. Festivals, drumming, and praise-songs reinforced political legitimacy.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Agricultural diversification and transhumance buffered environmental stress. Tribute and trade redistributed surpluses in lean years. Coastal chiefdoms exploited fisheries and mangroves. Spiritual rituals reinforced cohesion under climate pressure.

Transition

By 1539 CE, the Songhai Empire dominated the Niger bend; Benin flourished as an artistic and political power; and coastal polities engaged Portuguese traders. Gold, ivory, kola, and enslaved captives linked West Africa to both Saharan and Atlantic networks, reshaping its place in the wider world.

West Africa (1540–1683 CE): Gold, Slavery, and the Rising Atlantic World

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of West Africa includes the Sahelian and savanna zones stretching from the Senegal and Niger River basins across modern Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, as well as the forest and coastal belts of Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria. Anchors included the Niger River’s inland delta, the savanna–forest transition zones, the Guinea coast lagoons, and the Atlantic seaboard from Senegambia to the Bight of Benin. This was a world of caravan roads, goldfields, forest polities, and increasingly, European coastal forts.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age brought variability: Sahelian droughts tightened pasture and farming margins, leading to migrations of herders and farmers. Rainfall in forest zones remained more stable, supporting yam, oil palm, and kola production. Along the coast, seasonal monsoons shaped agricultural calendars and maritime trade, while estuaries and lagoons sheltered fleets of canoes.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Sahel and savanna: Millet, sorghum, and rice farming sustained large populations. Cattle herding remained vital to Fulani and other pastoralists.

• Forest belt: Yams, plantains, oil palm, and kola nuts supported dense farming villages. Fishing and salt collection flourished in lagoons and mangroves.

• Urban centers: Timbuktu, Gao, and Jenne thrived as commercial and intellectual hubs. Coastal towns from Elmina to Lagos grew around markets and forts.

Technology & Material Culture

Iron smelting continued to produce tools and weapons. Mud-brick mosques, fortified palaces, and walled towns reflected Islamic and local traditions. Coastal states commissioned brass, ivory, and gold works—exemplified by the Benin bronzes. Manuscript culture flourished in Timbuktu, with Arabic scholarship in law, theology, and science. Europeans introduced firearms, textiles, and new shipborne technologies, altering trade balances and warfare.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trans-Saharan caravans: Still carried gold, kola, and slaves northward, though now rivaled by Atlantic trade.

• Niger River: Remained a great artery of commerce, ferrying grain, salt, and scholars between Sahelian cities.

• Atlantic coast: Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French traders established forts at Elmina (Portuguese, 1482; Dutch, 1637), Ouidah, and other sites. Slaves, gold, and ivory flowed outward; firearms and cloth flowed inward.

• Internal slave routes: Raids and wars supplied captives to coastal markets, reshaping inland societies.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

Islam remained dominant in Sahelian cities, expressed in mosques, Qur’anic schools, and Sufi brotherhoods. In the forest belt, indigenous religions emphasized ancestor veneration, sacred groves, and ritual kingship. Oral traditions and griots preserved genealogies and epic histories. Court art in Benin and Oyo projected power with bronzes, ivories, and regalia. Music and drumming structured rituals of kingship and community life.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Communities responded to drought with migration, crop diversification, and riverine farming. Trade networks redistributed surpluses during shortages. Palm oil and kola supported resilience in forest zones. Along the coast, fishing, salt, and coastal trade cushioned against inland famine. Sufi networks and communal rituals reinforced solidarity in times of stress.

Transition

By 1683 CE, West Africa had entered a new global order. The Songhai Empire had collapsed after the Moroccan invasion of 1591, fragmenting Sahelian power. Coastal states like Benin, Oyo, and Asante rose to prominence, enriched by Atlantic commerce. European forts dotted the seaboard, embedding Africa into the triangular trade system. West Africa remained vibrant and resilient, but its future was increasingly bound to the transatlantic slave trade.

Borno reaches its apogee under mai Idris Alooma (ca. 1569-1600), during whose reign Kanem is reconquered.

As a result of his campaigns, several Hausa cities, including Kano and Katsina, become tributaries.

The destruction of Songhai leaves Borno uncontested as an imperial force, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Borno continues to dominate the political history of northern Nigeria.

Now Borno becomes the center of Islamic learning and trade.

Its capital at Birni Gazargamu, on the Komadugu Yobe River that flows eastward into Lake Chad, is well situated in the midst of a prosperous agricultural district.

Textile production is a mainstay of its economy.

Borno also controls extensive salt deposits, which supply its most important export to the west and south.

These reserves are located at Bilma and Fachi in the Sahara, in the districts of Mangari and Muniyo adjacent to Birni Gazargamu, and on the northeastern shores of Lake Chad.