Khoid
Nation | Active
1500 CE to 2215 CE
The Khoid, also Khoyd or Khoit (Northern ones/people) people are an Oirat subgroup of the Choros clan, and are at one time among the largest of the Oirat tribes
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Dawachi and the Khoit-Oirat prince Amursana had competed in 1752 for the title of Khan of the Dzungars, a confederation of several Tibetan Buddhist Oirat tribes that had emerged suddenly in the early seventeenth century.
The Qing dynasty has gone to war against the Dzungars, who live in the area stretching from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia (most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang).
They are the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they have done from the early seventeenth century.
Amursana had suffered several defeats at the hands of Dawachi and was thus forced to flee with his small army to the protection of the Qing imperial court.
The Yongzheng Emperor's successor, the Qianlong Emperor, has pledged his to support Amursana, who recognizes Qing authority; among those who support Amursana and the Chinese are the Khoja brothers Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān.
Khan Khoja is kept as hostage whereas Burhan-ud-din is sent with Oirat, Chinese and Turks to re-conquer the Altishah, the six oasis towns along the rim of the Tarim Basin.
Qianlong in 1755 sends the Manchu general Zhaohui, who is aided by Amursana, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān, to lead a campaign against the Dzungars.
After several skirmishes and small scale battles along the Ili River, the Qing army led by Zhaohui approaches Ili (Gulja; modern Yining City) and forces Dawachi to surrender.
Qianlong appoints Amursana as the Khan of Khoid and one of four equal khans—much to the displeasure of Amursana, who had wanted to be the Khan of the Dzungars.
The Qing dynasty has gone to war against the Dzungars, who live in the area stretching from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia (most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang).
They are the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they have done from the early seventeenth century.
Amursana had suffered several defeats at the hands of Dawachi and was thus forced to flee with his small army to the protection of the Qing imperial court.
The Yongzheng Emperor's successor, the Qianlong Emperor, has pledged his to support Amursana, who recognizes Qing authority; among those who support Amursana and the Chinese are the Khoja brothers Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān.
Khan Khoja is kept as hostage whereas Burhan-ud-din is sent with Oirat, Chinese and Turks to re-conquer the Altishah, the six oasis towns along the rim of the Tarim Basin.
Qianlong in 1755 sends the Manchu general Zhaohui, who is aided by Amursana, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān, to lead a campaign against the Dzungars.
After several skirmishes and small scale battles along the Ili River, the Qing army led by Zhaohui approaches Ili (Gulja; modern Yining City) and forces Dawachi to surrender.
Qianlong appoints Amursana as the Khan of Khoid and one of four equal khans—much to the displeasure of Amursana, who had wanted to be the Khan of the Dzungars.
Qing attention now becomes focused on the Khalka prince Chingünjav, a descendant of Genghis Khan, who between the summer of 1756 and January 1757 has mounted a Khalka Mongol rebellion against the Qing, the most serious until the dynasty's demise in 1911.
Before dealing with Amursana, the majority of Qianlong's forces are reassigned to ensure stability in Khalka until Chingünjav's army is crushed by the Qing in a ferocious battle near Lake Khövsgöl in January, 1757.
Before dealing with Amursana, the majority of Qianlong's forces are reassigned to ensure stability in Khalka until Chingünjav's army is crushed by the Qing in a ferocious battle near Lake Khövsgöl in January, 1757.
Qianlong, after the victory at Lake Khövsgöl, dispatches additional forces to Ili where they quickly rout the rebels.
Amursana escapes for a third time to the Kazakh Khanate, but not long afterwards Ablai Khan pledges tributary status to the Chinese, which means Amursana is no longer safe.
The Russians had taken Amursana to Tobolsk, where he dies of smallpox on September 21, 1757, at thirty-five.
The Chinese have demanded the return of the fugitive and his followers under the terms of Article X to the Treaty of Kiakhta, but the Russians have hid the facts behind his flight and death hoping to gain leverage through the possession of his body.
After Qing envoys were told that Amursana had died crossing the Irtysh River, they spent the next month dredging it but found nothing.
After a long period of wrangling, the Russians finally agreed to ship Amursana's frozen body from Tobolsk to Kiakhta for viewing but refuse a request that it be handed over for "posthumous punishment"; they instead bury it.
Repeated Qing requests to St. Petersburg for the return of Amursana's corpse will be rebutted by the Russians on the grounds that their amicable relations should not be upset by "a few rotten bones".
Qianlong piled on the pressure: he places Russian Orthodox monks in Beijing under house arrest and threatens to cut off trade altogether.
In the end, Amursana's body is not returned.
Qianlong's obsession with the matter appears to have been influenced by his grandfather Kangxi's treatment of the body of his arch-enemy Galdan Boshugtu Khan, whose head was placed on public display and his ashes crushed on the military parade ground in the Chinese capital.
The Chinese have demanded the return of the fugitive and his followers under the terms of Article X to the Treaty of Kiakhta, but the Russians have hid the facts behind his flight and death hoping to gain leverage through the possession of his body.
After Qing envoys were told that Amursana had died crossing the Irtysh River, they spent the next month dredging it but found nothing.
After a long period of wrangling, the Russians finally agreed to ship Amursana's frozen body from Tobolsk to Kiakhta for viewing but refuse a request that it be handed over for "posthumous punishment"; they instead bury it.
Repeated Qing requests to St. Petersburg for the return of Amursana's corpse will be rebutted by the Russians on the grounds that their amicable relations should not be upset by "a few rotten bones".
Qianlong piled on the pressure: he places Russian Orthodox monks in Beijing under house arrest and threatens to cut off trade altogether.
In the end, Amursana's body is not returned.
Qianlong's obsession with the matter appears to have been influenced by his grandfather Kangxi's treatment of the body of his arch-enemy Galdan Boshugtu Khan, whose head was placed on public display and his ashes crushed on the military parade ground in the Chinese capital.
Under Ubashi Khan’s leadership, approximately two hundred thousand Kalmyks had begun the journey from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria.
Approximately five-sixths of the Torghut tribe had followed Ubashi Khan.
Most of the Khoshuts, Choros and Khoits had also accompanied the Torghuts on their journey to Dzungaria.
The Dörbet tribe, by contrast, had elected not to go at all.
The Kalmyks who resettle in Qing territory became known as Torghuts.
While the first phase of their movement becomes the Old Torghuts, the Qing call the later Torghut immigrants "New Torghut".
The size of the departing group has been variously estimated between one hundred and fifty thousand and four hundred thousand people, with perhaps as many as six million animals (cattle, sheep, horses, camels and dogs).
Beset by raids, thirst and starvation, approximately eighty-five thousand survivors make it to Dzungaria, where they settle near the Ejin River with the permission of the Qing Manchu Emperor.
The Torghuts are coerced by the Qing into giving up their nomadic lifestyle and to take up sedentary agriculture instead as part of a deliberate policy by the Qing to enfeeble them.
They prove to be incompetent farmers and they become destitute, selling their children into slavery, engaging in prostitution, and stealing, according to the Manchu Qi-yi-shi.
Child slaves are in demand on the Central Asian slave market, and Torghut children are sold into this slave trade.
Approximately five-sixths of the Torghut tribe had followed Ubashi Khan.
Most of the Khoshuts, Choros and Khoits had also accompanied the Torghuts on their journey to Dzungaria.
The Dörbet tribe, by contrast, had elected not to go at all.
The Kalmyks who resettle in Qing territory became known as Torghuts.
While the first phase of their movement becomes the Old Torghuts, the Qing call the later Torghut immigrants "New Torghut".
The size of the departing group has been variously estimated between one hundred and fifty thousand and four hundred thousand people, with perhaps as many as six million animals (cattle, sheep, horses, camels and dogs).
Beset by raids, thirst and starvation, approximately eighty-five thousand survivors make it to Dzungaria, where they settle near the Ejin River with the permission of the Qing Manchu Emperor.
The Torghuts are coerced by the Qing into giving up their nomadic lifestyle and to take up sedentary agriculture instead as part of a deliberate policy by the Qing to enfeeble them.
They prove to be incompetent farmers and they become destitute, selling their children into slavery, engaging in prostitution, and stealing, according to the Manchu Qi-yi-shi.
Child slaves are in demand on the Central Asian slave market, and Torghut children are sold into this slave trade.
The political situation among the Kalmyks had become unstable after the death of Ayuka Khan in 1724, as various factions sought to be recognized as Khan.
The Tsarist government has also gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate.
These policies, for instance, have encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks use to roam and feed their livestock.
In addition, the Tsarist government had imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia.
The Russian Orthodox church, by contrast, has pressured many Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy.
By the mid-seventeenth century, Kalmyks are increasingly disillusioned with settler encroachment and interference in their internal affairs.
In the winter of 1770-1771, Ubashi Khan, the great-grandson Ayuka Khan and the last Kalmyk Khan, decides to return his people to their ancestral homeland, Dzungaria, now under control of the Qing dynasty.
The Dalai Lama is contacted to request his blessing and to set the date of departure.
After consulting the astrological chart, the Dalai Lama sets the return date, but at the moment of departure, the weakening of the ice on the Volga River permits only those Kalmyks who roam on the left or eastern bank to leave.
Those on the right bank are forced to stay behind.
Catherine the Great, after failing to stop the flight, abolishes the Kalmyk Khanate, transferring all governmental powers to the Governor of Astrakhan.
The title of Khan is abolished.
The highest native governing office remaining is the Vice-Khan, who also is recognized by the government as the highest ranking Kalmyk prince.
By appointing the Vice-Khan, the Tsarist government is now permanently the decisive force in Kalmyk government and affairs.
The Tsarist government has also gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate.
These policies, for instance, have encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks use to roam and feed their livestock.
In addition, the Tsarist government had imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia.
The Russian Orthodox church, by contrast, has pressured many Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy.
By the mid-seventeenth century, Kalmyks are increasingly disillusioned with settler encroachment and interference in their internal affairs.
In the winter of 1770-1771, Ubashi Khan, the great-grandson Ayuka Khan and the last Kalmyk Khan, decides to return his people to their ancestral homeland, Dzungaria, now under control of the Qing dynasty.
The Dalai Lama is contacted to request his blessing and to set the date of departure.
After consulting the astrological chart, the Dalai Lama sets the return date, but at the moment of departure, the weakening of the ice on the Volga River permits only those Kalmyks who roam on the left or eastern bank to leave.
Those on the right bank are forced to stay behind.
Catherine the Great, after failing to stop the flight, abolishes the Kalmyk Khanate, transferring all governmental powers to the Governor of Astrakhan.
The title of Khan is abolished.
The highest native governing office remaining is the Vice-Khan, who also is recognized by the government as the highest ranking Kalmyk prince.
By appointing the Vice-Khan, the Tsarist government is now permanently the decisive force in Kalmyk government and affairs.