The site of Lagash (modern al-Hiba), located about one hundred and twenty miles (two hundred kilometers) northwest of Basra, Iraq, may have been first occupied about 3000.

The dynasty of Lagash, though omitted from the king list, is well attested through several important monuments and many archaeological finds.

Sumerian pictographs are evolving into phonograms during the period of about 2900 BCE to 2400 BCE.

Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform, the use of writing expands beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists to be applied for the first time, about 2600 BCE, to messages and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records, and other pursuits.

Forms of the Genesis story and the tale of the Flood (the earliest parts of the Bible) are written in Mesopotamia around this time.

Conjointly with the spread of writing, the first formal schools are established, usually under the auspices of a city-state's primary temple.

The use of cuneiform for a non-Sumerian language can be demonstrated with certainty from the twenty-seventh century BCE.

Akkadian uses the cuneiform writing system derived ultimately from ancient Sumerian, an unrelated language isolate.

The name of the language is derived from the city of Akkad, a major center of Mesopotamian civilization.

A close cultural symbiosis will develop during the third millennium BCE between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which includes widespread bilingualism.

The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.

This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund.

Sumerian myths were passed down through the oral tradition until the invention of writing.

Early Sumerian Cuneiform was used primarily as a record-keeping tool; it was not until the late Early Dynastic period that religious writings first became prevalent as temple praise hymns and as a form of "incantation" called the nam-šub (prefix + "to cast").

The Sumerians originally practiced a polytheistic religion, with anthropomorphic deities representing cosmic and terrestrial forces in their world.

Sumerian deities became more anthrocentric during the middle of the third millennium BCE and were "...nature gods transformed into city gods."

Gods like Enki and Inanna were viewed as having been assigned their rank, power and knowledge from An, the heaven deity, or Enlil, head of the Sumerian pantheon.

Eannatum of Lagash, grandson of Ur-Nanshe, creates one of the first historically known empires, albeit a short-lived one.

Eannatum annexes practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk (controlled by Enshakushanna, who is on the King List), Ur, Nippur, Akshak (controlled by Zuzu), and Larsa, and reduces to tributary status the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash, making every person pay a certain amount of grain into the treasury of the goddess Nina and the god Ingurisa.

In addition, his realm extends to parts of Elam, including the city Az on the Persian Gulf.

He allegedly smites Subartu or Shubur, and demands tribute as far as Mari.

Parts of his empire are often in revolt, however.

During Eannatum’s reign, many temples and palaces are built, especially in Lagash.

The city of Nina, probably a precursor of Nineveh, is rebuilt, with many canals and reservoirs being excavated.

Eannatum is notable for the policy of having deliberately introduced the use of "terror" as a matter of policy—his stele of the vultures has been found, showing violent treatment of enemies.

The full stele, carved of limestone and approximately five feet eleven inches (one point eight meters) high, is set up around 2600–2500 BCE as a monument of the victory of Eannatum over Enakalle of Umma.

Found in fragments in Ngirsu, (modern Telloh) Iraq, in 1881, the stele is now in the Louvre.

Eannatum’s empire collapses shortly after his death.

The Middle East (2493–2350 BCE): Emergence of Political Authority and Economic Networks

Transition from Priestly to Secular Kingship

From 2493 to 2350 BCE, a significant transformation occurred in Sumerian political structures, marking the shift from priestly rule toward secular authority. Unlike earlier religious rulers, new kings wielded explicit political control independent of religious functions. This period saw intense rivalry among prominent Sumerian city-states such as Umma, Kish, and Lagash, each vying for dominance over the fertile river valleys of lower Mesopotamia.

Expansion of Economic and Commercial Networks

During this era, an extensive commercial network emerged, interlinking regions as diverse as Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Aegean, and the Syrian coast. Central to this vast economic system was the influential kingdom of Ebla, identified at Tall Mardikh. Ebla flourished as a sophisticated and powerful indigenous empire, controlling large parts of northern Syria and exerting considerable influence on portions of lower Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Iran.

Foundation and Early Occupation of Assur

Archaeological discoveries indicate the initial occupation of the site of Assur around 2500 BCE, possibly by groups migrating from Syria or the southern regions. The city's early foundations, including structures discovered beneath the Ishtar temple and the Old Palace, foreshadowed its eventual prominence as a significant Assyrian center.

Artistic and Technological Sophistication

The Sumerians demonstrated remarkable artistic sophistication during this period, creating intricate jewelry pieces including necklaces, earrings, rings, and bracelets. Exceptional craftsmanship is exemplified by finds from the royal tombs of Ur, where luxurious artifacts such as gold headdresses adorned with lapis lazuli pendants highlight advanced techniques like casting, cloisonné, granulation, and filigree.

Akkadian Ascendancy and Linguistic Developments

Semitic-speaking Akkadians began to dominate northern Mesopotamia around 2410 BCE, significantly altering regional power dynamics. The Akkadian language, employing the cuneiform writing system, became widespread. The proliferation of scribal schools across Sumer supported this linguistic and administrative transformation.

Intercultural Relations and Conflicts

The city-state of Mari, inhabited by Semitic peoples related to the Eblaite and Akkadian groups, developed significant cultural and political connections with southern Mesopotamia. Artifacts and votive statues from Mari's temples indicate stylistic influences from Sumerian art, reflecting extensive intercultural interactions. Conflicts, particularly between the city-states of Lagash, Kish, and others, intensified during this period, epitomized by military exploits such as those led by King Eannatum of Lagash.

Elamite Political Ascendance

Elam, with its distinct language and matrilineal succession, solidified its political presence in the region through the establishment of the Awan dynasty. This dynasty's hegemony and trade relations with Sumer, particularly under Elamite rulers who occasionally dominated Sumerian cities, underscored its significant role in regional politics and economics.

Ebla's Administrative and Cultural Legacy

The city-state of Ebla emerged prominently during this period, known for extensive administrative records on clay tablets discovered at the site. Written in the Eblaite language, these tablets provided insights into diplomatic communications, trade practices, and cultural exchanges, highlighting Ebla’s status as an economic powerhouse with far-reaching commercial ties extending across the Near East.

Phoenician Maritime Influence

Phoenician cities such as Byblos (Gubla) continued to expand maritime trade, exporting goods like cedar, olive oil, and wine, and importing luxury items from Egypt. Depictions in Egyptian reliefs from this era notably portray Phoenician maritime activities, emphasizing their significant role in Mediterranean commerce.

Military and Urban Developments

Militarily, innovations in infantry formations became apparent, illustrated by the Stele of the Vultures, which depicted organized formations akin to a phalanx. The period also saw substantial urban fortifications, notably the legendary construction of extensive defensive walls around Uruk ordered by the semi-mythological King Gilgamesh.

Ur's Dynastic Prominence

Under Mesannepada, the city of Ur rose to preeminence, marked by impressive constructions including elaborate royal tombs. These tombs, notably that of Queen Puabi, evidenced Ur’s wealth, power, and sophisticated cultural practices.

The era from 2493 to 2350 BCE was thus characterized by pronounced shifts toward political authority distinct from religious power, extensive economic networks, artistic and technological advancements, and complex intercultural relations, laying crucial foundations for future regional dynamics.

Lagash is an important Sumerian city in the late third millennium BCE, as indicated by inscriptions found at Telloh.

It is ruled at this time by such independent kings as Ur-Nanshe (twenty-fourth century BCE) and his successors, who are engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of "Kiengir" and Kish on the north.

Inscriptions describing the reforms of king Urukagina of Lagash state that he abolished the former custom of polyandry in his country, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands being stoned with rocks upon which her crime is written.

The Sumerians dig canals along the southern reaches of the Tigris River from at least 2400.

Intercity conflict among such Sumerian cities as Ur, Lagash, and Kish reaches a climax in the early twenty-fourth century BCE.

Eannatum of Lagash raids other cities.

The earliest known depiction of a phalanx-like formation occurs in the so-called Stele of the Vultures, a fragmented limestone stele found in Telloh, (ancient Girsu) Iraq, in 1881.

Here the troops seem to have been equipped with spears, helmets, and large shields covering the whole body.

Ancient Egyptian infantry were known to have employed similar formations.

The Stele of the Vultures, now in the Louvre, is reconstructed as having been one point eight meters (five feet, eleven inches) high and one point three meters (four feet, three inches) wide and was set up between about 2500 and 2400 BCE.

It was erected as a monument of the victory of Eannatum of Lagash over Enakalle of Umma.

On it are represented various incidents in the war.

In one register, the king stands in his chariot with a curved weapon in his right hand, formed of three bars of metal bound together by rings, while his kilted followers, with helmets on their heads and lances in their hands, march behind him.

In another register, a figure, presumed to be that of the king, rides on his chariot in the thick of the battle.

On the other side of the stele is an image of Ninurta, a god of war, who holds the captive Ummaites in a large net.

This implies that Eannatum attributed his victory to Ninurta, and thus that he was in the god's protection (though some accounts say that he attributed his victory to Enlil, the patron deity of Lagash).

The First Dynasty of Lagash, which holds power from about 2500 BCE to about 2271 BCE, is not mentioned in the King List, though it is well known from inscriptions.

Eannatum, grandson of Ur-Nanshe, is a king of Lagash who conquers all of Sumer, including Ur, Nippur, Akshak (controlled by Zuzu), Larsa, and Uruk (controlled by Enshakushanna, who is on the King List).

He also annexes the kingdom of Kish, which is to regain its independence after his death.

He makes Umma a tributary, where every person had to pay a certain amount of grain into the treasury of the goddess Nina and the god Ingurisa.

Eannatum expands his influence beyond the boundaries of Sumer, conquering parts of Elam, including the city Az on the Persian Gulf, allegedly smites Shubur, and demands tribute as far as Mari.

However, often parts of his empire are in revolt.

During Eannatum’s reign, many temples and palaces are built, especially in Lagash.

The city of Nina, probably a precursor of Niniveh, is rebuilt, with many canals and reservoirs being excavated.

Urukagina, alternately rendered as Uruinimgina, is a ruler (énsi) of Lagash in Mesopotamia about the twenty-fourth century BCE, is best-known for his reforms to combat corruption, which are sometimes cited as the first example of a judicial code.

Although the actual text has not been discovered yet, much of its content may be surmised from other references to it that have been found.

In it, he exempts widows and orphans from taxes; compels the city to pay funeral expenses (including the ritual food and drink libations for the journey of the dead into the lower world); and decrees that the rich must use silver when purchasing from the poor man, and if the poor does not wish to sell, the powerful man (the rich man or the priest) cannot force him to do so.

Urukagina's code is perhaps the first known example of government self-reform.

Like the Magna Carta and the United States Constitution that followed (and like the Codes of Hammurabi, et al.

to some degree), Urukagina's code limits the power of politicians, governing government.

The text describing Urukagina's reforms is also the first known use of the word freedom, in this case the Sumerian ama-gi.

Urukagina frees the inhabitants of Lagash from usury, burdensome controls, hunger, theft, murder, and seizure (of their property and persons).

He also participates in several conflicts, notably a losing border conflict with Uruk.

During his reign, Uruk falls under the leadership of Lugal-Zage-Si, patesi of Umma, who ultimately overthrows Urukagina, annexes Lagash, and establishes a Mesopotamian Empire.