The site of Lagash (modern al-Hiba), located about one hundred and twenty miles (two hundred kilometers) northwest of Basra, Iraq, may have been first occupied about 3000.

The dynasty of Lagash, though omitted from the king list, is well attested through several important monuments and many archaeological finds.

Sumerian pictographs are evolving into phonograms during the period of about 2900 BCE to 2400 BCE.

Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform, the use of writing expands beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists to be applied for the first time, about 2600 BCE, to messages and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records, and other pursuits.

Forms of the Genesis story and the tale of the Flood (the earliest parts of the Bible) are written in Mesopotamia around this time.

Conjointly with the spread of writing, the first formal schools are established, usually under the auspices of a city-state's primary temple.

A severe famine strikes Mesopotamia in 2550 BCE as water levels fall and crops die.

Eannatum of Lagash, grandson of Ur-Nanshe, creates one of the first historically known empires, albeit a short-lived one.

Eannatum annexes practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk (controlled by Enshakushanna, who is on the King List), Ur, Nippur, Akshak (controlled by Zuzu), and Larsa, and reduces to tributary status the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash, making every person pay a certain amount of grain into the treasury of the goddess Nina and the god Ingurisa.

In addition, his realm extends to parts of Elam, including the city Az on the Persian Gulf.

He allegedly smites Subartu or Shubur, and demands tribute as far as Mari.

Parts of his empire are often in revolt, however.

During Eannatum’s reign, many temples and palaces are built, especially in Lagash.

The city of Nina, probably a precursor of Nineveh, is rebuilt, with many canals and reservoirs being excavated.

Eannatum is notable for the policy of having deliberately introduced the use of "terror" as a matter of policy—his stele of the vultures has been found, showing violent treatment of enemies.

The full stele, carved of limestone and approximately five feet eleven inches (one point eight meters) high, is set up around 2600–2500 BCE as a monument of the victory of Eannatum over Enakalle of Umma.

Found in fragments in Ngirsu, (modern Telloh) Iraq, in 1881, the stele is now in the Louvre.

Eannatum’s empire collapses shortly after his death.

The First Dynasty of Lagash, which holds power from about 2500 BCE to about 2271 BCE, is not mentioned in the King List, though it is well known from inscriptions.

Eannatum, grandson of Ur-Nanshe, is a king of Lagash who conquers all of Sumer, including Ur, Nippur, Akshak (controlled by Zuzu), Larsa, and Uruk (controlled by Enshakushanna, who is on the King List).

He also annexes the kingdom of Kish, which is to regain its independence after his death.

He makes Umma a tributary, where every person had to pay a certain amount of grain into the treasury of the goddess Nina and the god Ingurisa.

Eannatum expands his influence beyond the boundaries of Sumer, conquering parts of Elam, including the city Az on the Persian Gulf, allegedly smites Shubur, and demands tribute as far as Mari.

However, often parts of his empire are in revolt.

During Eannatum’s reign, many temples and palaces are built, especially in Lagash.

The city of Nina, probably a precursor of Niniveh, is rebuilt, with many canals and reservoirs being excavated.

Hereditary kings in lower Mesopotamia rule such Sumerian cities as Eridu, Kish, Larsa, Lagash, Sippar, Umma, Uruk, and Ur, representatives of which convene as a league in Nippur, the religious center.

Nippur never enjoys political hegemony in its own right, but its control is crucial, as it is considered capable of conferring the overall "kingship" on monarchs from other city-states.

It is distinctively a sacred city, important from the possession of the famous shrine of Enlil.

According to the Tummal Chronicle, Enmebaragesi, an early ruler of Kish, was the first to build up this temple.

His influence over Nippur has also been detected archaeologically.

The Chronicle lists successive early Sumerian rulers who kept up intermittent ceremonies at the temple: Aga of Kish, son of Enmebaragesi; Mesannepada of Ur; his son Meskiang-nunna; Gilgamesh of Uruk; his son Ur-Nungal; Nanni of Ur and his son Meskiang-nanna.

It also indicates that the practice was revived in Neo-Sumerian times by Ur-Nammu of Ur, and continues until Ibbi-Sin appoints Enmegalana high priest in Uruk around 1950 BCE.

Inscriptions of Lugal-Zage-Si and Lugal-kigub-nidudu, kings of Uruk and Ur respectively, and of other early pre-Semitic rulers, on door-sockets and stone vases, show the veneration in which the ancient shrine was then held, and the importance attached to its possession, as giving a certain stamp of legitimacy.

On their votive offerings, some of these rulers designate themselves as ensis, or governors.

The Middle East: 2061–1918 BCE

Invasions, Cultural Synthesis, and Urban Transformation

Collapse of Ur III and the Rise of Elam

Between 2061 and 1918 BCE, the Middle East witnessed pivotal transformations. The combined attacks of the Amorites, Semitic peoples from the west, and the Elamites, originating from southwestern Iran, culminated in the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur by around 2000 BCE. Despite their military victory, these invaders carried forward the Sumero-Akkadian cultural legacy. By 2000 BCE, Elam had achieved sufficient unity and strength to sack Ur, marking the beginning of a rapid cultural ascent and regional influence.

Amorite Expansion and Cultural Integration

The Amorite migration, triggered by drought conditions in the late third millennium BCE, significantly reshaped the demographic landscape. Large numbers of these Semitic-speaking nomads entered and dominated regions including Canaan and Mesopotamia. Their influx into Babylonia, the mid-Euphrates, and Syria-Palestine resulted in numerous small kingdoms that integrated and sustained Sumero-Akkadian traditions. This period set the stage for powerful Amorite kingdoms, eventually culminating in the prominence of Babylon under Hammurabi.

Amorite Identity and Settlement Patterns

The Amorites, or Mar.tu, featured prominently in early Sumerian texts, initially associated with western territories including Syria and Canaan, though their original homeland remains debated—ranging from the broad expanse between the Euphrates and Mediterranean to more limited areas such as Jebel Bishri in modern Syria. Their culture notably incorporated worship of the moon-god Sin and the deity Amurru.

Urban Flourishing and Interaction with Egypt

Bronze Age urban centers thrived, maintaining active trade networks that extended to Egypt, which held a dominant presence in the Jordan Valley. This urban prosperity declined after 2000 BCE due to Amorite migrations. In Syria and Canaan, Amorite culture blended closely with indigenous Hurrian populations, creating a vibrant, interconnected civilization. Early diplomatic and trade contacts between Ugaritic cities and Egypt date specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Senusret I (1971–1926 BCE), evidenced by archaeological finds such as a distinctive carnelian bead.

Commercial and Legal Developments

The city-state of Eshnunna flourished as a key commercial hub due to its strategic location on major trade routes connecting Mesopotamia with Elam. Exotic goods, including horses from northern regions and precious metals and stones, flowed through this gateway city. Notably, early codifications of law such as the Code of Ur-Nammu (circa 2050 BCE) and the Code of Eshnunna (circa 1930 BCE) formalized economic relationships, introducing monetary fines, compensation standards, and regulated interest rates.

The Enigma of Dilmun

Dilmun, an important maritime trade center described in Sumerian texts as "the Land of the Living," retained its significance into the early second millennium BCE. Despite its prominence in ancient literature—including the Epic of Gilgamesh—archaeological evidence for Dilmun’s exact location during this period remains uncertain. Various proposals situate Dilmun around modern Bahrain, Failaka, or possibly an unidentified location near the Shat al-Arab, aligning better with ancient descriptions.

Urban and Religious Developments

Mesopotamian cities, notably Ur, became architectural marvels. Ur, housing approximately sixty-five thousand people around 2030–1980 BCE, surpassed Lagash as the largest urban center. It featured elaborately designed ziggurats dedicated to lunar deities, built with vibrant glazed bricks. Concurrently, Gilgamesh, legendary king of Uruk, was immortalized in humanity's first great poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, composed around 2000 BCE.

Assyria: Emergence of a New Power

In northern Mesopotamia, the cities of Assur, Nineveh, and Irbil defined early Assyria. Although initially under Akkadian and later Sumerian influence, Assyria gained independence in the late twenty-first century BCE. Early kings, such as Tudiya—who interacted diplomatically with Ebla—transitioned from nomadic to urban leadership, establishing a stable monarchy by about 1930 BCE under Ushpia, contemporaneous with Ishbi-Erra of Larsa.

Majan and Wider Trade Networks

The kingdom of Majan (likely modern Oman) was integral to interregional trade, supplying valuable copper and diorite. Trade relations, disrupted during Gutian domination, resumed vigorously under the Ur III dynasty, reinforcing Mesopotamia's commercial links with distant lands such as Zanzibar and South Asia.

This era, thus, represents a transformative period marked by cultural integration, extensive trade networks, urban sophistication, and the emergence of enduring civilizations across the Middle East.

The Semitic-speaking Amorites, who penetrate Canaan from the northeast, become the dominant element of the population.

In Syria as well as in Canaan, the Amorite newcomers thoroughly mix with the Hurrians; their civilization is intimately connected with that of the towns of the Phoenician-Canaanite coast.

The pharaohs give costly gifts to those princes, such as the rulers of Qatna and ...

A large-scale migration of federated Amorite tribes, likely triggered by the twenty-second century BCE drought, infiltrates Mesopotamia from the west from the twenty-first century BCE, resulting in the occupation of Babylonia proper, the mid-Euphrates region, and Syria-Palestine.

They set up a mosaic of small kingdoms and rapidly assimilate the Sumero-Akkadian culture.

They are one of the instruments of the downfall of the Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur, and acquiring a series of powerful kingdoms, culminate in the triumph under Hammurabi of Babylon.

The land of the Amorites ("the Mar.tu land") is associated in the earliest Sumerian sources, beginning about 2400 BCE, with the West, including Syria and Canaan, although their ultimate origin may have been Arabia.

The ethnic terms Amurru and Amar were used for them in Assyria and Egypt respectively.

Amorites seem to have worshipped the moon-god Sin, and Amurru.

Among the wide range of views regarding the Amorite homeland, the more extreme of these is the view that kur mar.tu/m t amurrim covered the whole area between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean, Arabia included.

The other extreme is the view that the “homeland” of the Amorites was a limited area in Syria (Jebel Bishri).

One minority theory refers to Arabia in general as the area from where the Amorites once came.

Another refers to a limited area (unknown) in Arabia, the mountain district of Martu.

However, as the Amorite language is a northwestern Semitic language, it is likely that they originated from what is now modern Syria.