Lingones (Celtic tribe)

The Helvetii have planned and prepared themselves for three years, and emissaries have been sent out to various Gallic tribes assuring safe passages and alliances.

In 58 BCE, Orgetorix's ambitions are declared a ruse for personal power; this rumor is celebrated among the enemies of the Helvetii, especially those of Roman clientele.

This succeeds in causing confusion and feuds among the tribes, based mainly on the merits of Orgetorix versus his vices.

The conspiracy is denounced; Orgetorix is called to a hearing in chains before the government of the Helvetii.

There is an effort to seize him at council, however he is protected by his retinue and bodyguards.

During the preceding seasons he had called up a sizable force of men-at-arms and vassals said to have numbered ten thousand men, this in addition to his armed entourage.

Orgetorix is able to escape capture by his rivals and the councils labor at length to resolve the confusions and disputes; however, Orgetorix is murdered or slain during a dispute within his own encampment With many conflicts of interest settled, the Helvetii once again return to their long planned migration to safer pastures among the Santones tribe on the Atlantic seaboard.

Caesar dates their departure to the twenty-eighth of March, and mentions that they burned all their towns and their villages so as to discourage thoughts among undecided client tribes or enemies to occupy their vacated realm.

The Helvetii retain and arm their client tribes: the Rauraci, the Tulingi, the Latovici, and the Boii, from whom they have hired a contingent of horsemen.

There are two available routes for them: the first one is the difficult and dangerous Pas de l'Ecluse, located between the Jura mountains and the Rhône River.

The second, easier one will lead them to the town of Geneva, where Lake Geneva flows into the Rhone River and where a bridge allows passage over the river.

These lands belong to the Allobroges, a tribe that had been subdued by Rome, and are under the control of the Roman republic.

Meanwhile, Caesar is in Rome, and only a single legion is in Transalpine Gaul, the endangered province.

As he is informed of these developments, he immediately hurries to Cisalpine Gaul, leaving his single legion under the command of his second-in-command Titus Labienus.

Upon arrival, he takes command of the three legions which were in Aquileia and enrolls two new legions, the Legio XI and the Legio XII.

At the head of these five legions, he travels the quickest way through the Alps, crossing territories of several hostile tribes and fighting several skirmishes en route.

Arriving in Geneva, he orders a levy of several auxiliary units and the destruction of the bridge.

The Helvetii send an embassy under the new leadership of Nammeius and Verucloetius, to negotiate a peaceful passage, promising to do no harm.

Caesar stalls the negotiations while his troops fortify their positions behind the river with a sixteen foot high rampart and a parallel trench lined with ballistas; his legionaries are backed by mercenary archers and slingers and Caesar has also hired and/or conscripted a contingent of Gallic horseman from the Remi.

As the embassy returns, Caesar officially refuses their request and warns them that any forceful attempt to cross the river will be opposed.

Several attempts are quickly beaten off.

The Helvetii turn back and enter negotiations with the Sequani to let them pass in a peaceful manner.

Caesar’s Campaign Against the Helvetii (58 BCE): The Battle of Bibracte and Its Aftermath

In 58 BCE, the Helvetii had already crossed the territories of the Sequani and were pillaging the lands of the Aedui, Ambarri, and Allobroges. These tribes, unable to oppose the migrating Helvetian coalition, sought assistance from Julius Caesar, their Roman ally.

Caesar’s Initial Engagement at the Battle of the Arar

• The Cimbri's Helvetian descendants, seeking new lands, attempted to migrate en masse through Gaul into Roman-controlled regions.
• Caesar intercepted them as they were crossing the River Arar (modern Saône), surprising a quarter of their forces, the Tigurini clan, who had not yet crossed.
• Three Roman legions swiftly attacked and defeated the Tigurini, forcing the survivors to flee into the nearby forests.
• After the victory, the Romans constructed a bridge over the Saône, continuing their pursuit of the main Helvetian force.

Failed Negotiations and the Roman Pursuit

• The Helvetii sent an embassy, led by Divico, to negotiate with Caesar. However, the talks failed, and the migration continued.
• For two weeks, the Romans shadowed the Helvetian column, attempting to halt their movement.
• Caesar ordered 4,000 cavalry (Roman and Aedui allied riders) to track and harass the Helvetii, but they were unexpectedly defeated by just 500 Helvetian cavalry, exposing weaknesses in Rome’s auxiliary forces.

Dumnorix and the Aedui Betrayal

• Supplies promised to the Romans by their Aedui allies were delayed, likely due to Dumnorix, an influential Aeduan leader with Helvetian sympathies.
• Facing logistical difficulties, Caesar diverted his army to Bibracte, the Aedui capital, to obtain food and regroup.

The Battle of Bibracte (June 20, 58 BCE)

• The Helvetii, learning of Caesar’s movement from deserters, turned back to harass his rear guard.
• Caesar deployed his army in triplex acies (the standard triple battle line) at the base of a hill near Bibracte, securing his baggage train at the top.
• The Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Legions formed the front battle line, while the Eleventh and Twelfth Legions, along with auxiliaries, guarded the summit.

Phases of the Battle

1. Initial Roman Defense and Counterattack

   • The Helvetii charged uphill but were repelled by a hail of pila (javelins) thrown from a distance of 10–15 yards.
   • The legions counterattacked, forcing the Helvetii to retreat a thousand paces back to their baggage train.

2. Reinforcements Arrive

   • The Boii and Tulingi, allies of the Helvetii, entered the battlefield with 15,000 warriors, attacking the Roman flank.
   • The Helvetii regrouped and returned to the fight, creating a two-front engagement.

3. Roman Tactical Adaptation

   • To counter the flanking maneuver, Caesar redeployed his third line, keeping the primary and secondary battle lines engaged with the retreating Helvetii.
   • The Romans fought for many hours into the night before finally capturing the Helvetian baggage train, securing a decisive victory.

The Aftermath of the Battle

• The Helvetii and their allies fled into the night, suffering catastrophic losses.
• According to Caesar’s account:
  • 368,000 Helvetii and allies had originally set out.
  • 92,000 were able-bodied warriors.
  • 110,000 survivors remained to return home.
  • 238,000 had been killed or captured.
• Caesar rested his legions for three days, then pursued the fleeing Helvetii, who had reached the territory of the Lingones.
• Caesar issued a warning to the Lingones not to aid the Helvetii, forcing them to surrender unconditionally.

Final Resolution and Roman Strategy

• The Helvetii, Boii, and Tulingi survivors were ordered to return to their homeland to rebuild their settlements.
• Rome provided them with supplies, ensuring they remained a buffer state against future Germanic incursions.
• A faction of 6,000 Helvetii (Verbigeni) attempted to flee but were captured and executed by other Gallic tribes at Caesar’s orders.
• A census written in Greek was discovered in the captured Helvetian camp, confirming the demographic scale of the migration.

Significance of the Battle of Bibracte

• Rome’s victory secured its dominance in Gaul, allowing Caesar to turn his attention to other Gallic tribes.
• The defeat of the Helvetii demonstrated the effectiveness of Roman military tactics, particularly the triplex acies formation and logistical strategy.
• The Helvetian migration served as a prelude to the Gallic Wars, in which Caesar would conquer all of Gaul within the next seven years (58–51 BCE).

The Battle of Bibracte was a key moment in Roman expansion, marking the beginning of Caesar’s conquest of Gaul and setting the stage for his rise to power in Rome.

The Batavi, a sub-tribe of the Germanic Chatti tribal group who had rendered valuable aid under the early emperors, had been well treated in order to attach them to the cause of Rome.

They are exempt from tribute, but are obliged to supply a large number of men for the army.

Gaius Julius Civilis, a hereditary prince of the Batavi, the prefect of a Batavi cohort, and a veteran of twenty-five years' service, had distinguished himself by service in Britain, where he and the eight Batavi cohorts had played a crucial role in both the Roman invasion in 43 CE and the subsequent subjugation of southern Britain.

Before and during the disturbances that followed the death of Nero, Civilis had been twice imprisoned on a charge of rebellion, and narrowly escaped execution.

Civilis in early 69 had been released by Vitellius, when the latter, having launched his mutiny against Otho, was in urgent need of the Batavi's military support.

The Batavi regiments, having duly helped Vitellius overthrow Otho at the Battle of Bedriacum, were then ordered to return home, but at this point came the mutiny of Vespasian, commander of forces in Syria.

Vitellius' general in Germania Inferior, ordered to raise more troops, squanders the goodwill of the Batavi by attempting to conscript more Batavi than the maximum stipulated in their treaty.

The brutality and corruption of the Roman recruiting centurions bring already deep discontent in the Batavi homeland to the boil.

Civilis, commanding the Batavian auxiliary troops allocated in the summer of 69 to the Rhine legions, takes up arms under the pretense of siding with Vespasian and induces the inhabitants of his native country to rebel.

The Batavi are immediately joined by several neighboring German tribes, the most important of whom are the Frisii.

Vespasian, who is fighting Vitellius for the imperial throne, salutes the rebellion that keeps his enemy from calling the Rhine legions to Italy.

The Batavi are promised independence and Civilis is on his way to becoming king, but, for unknown reasons, this is not enough for the Batavi.

Civilis chooses to pursue vengeance and swears to destroy the two Roman legions.

The timing is well chosen: with the civil war of the Year of the Four Emperors at its peak, it will take some time before Rome can produce an effective counterattack.

Moreover, the eight Batavian auxiliary units of Vitellius' army are on their way home and can be easily persuaded to join the rebellion for an independent Batavia.

This is an important reinforcement.

Apart from being veteran troops, their numbers are greater than the combined Roman troops stationed in Moguntiacum (Mainz) and …

…Bonna (Bonn).

The tribe of the Cananefates lives in lands between the Batavians and the North Sea.

The inducements used by Civilis to instigate rebellion are not known, but the Cananefates, led by their chief Brinno, attack several Roman forts, including Traiectum, modern Utrecht.

With most of the troops in Italy fighting in the civil war, the Romans are caught off guard.

Flaccus, commander of the Rhine legions, sends auxiliary troops to control the situation.

The result is another disaster for the Romans.

Civilis assumes the role of mastermind of the rebellion and defeats the Romans near modern Arnhem.

Flaccus orders the V Alaudae and the XV Primigenia legions to deal with the problem.

Accompanying them are three auxiliary units, including a Batavian cavalry squadron, commanded by Claudius Labeo, a known enemy of Civilis.

The battle takes place near modern Nijmegen.

The Batavian regiment deserts to their countrymen, dealing a blow to the already feeble morale of the Romans.

The result is disastrous: a Roman army is beaten and the legions forced to retreat to their base camp of Castra Vetera (modern Xanten).

Civilis in September 69 initiates the siege of Castra Vetera, the camp of the five thousand legionaries of V Alaudae and XV Primigenia.

The camp is very modern, filled with supplies and well defended, with walls of mud brick and wood, towers and a double ditch.

After some failed attempts to take the camp by force, Civilis decides to starve the troops into surrender.

Flaccus meanwhile decides to wait for the result of the war in Italy.

The Rhine legions not long before had been punished by Galba for their actions against the rebel Vindex of Gallia Lugdunensis.

Vespasian is winning the war and Civilis is helping him to become emperor by preventing at least the two legions besieged in Xanten, loyal to Vitellius, from coming to his rescue.

Flaccus and his commanders do not want to risk a second military gaffe and decide to wait for instructions.

Civilis continues the siege after the news of Vitellius' defeat arrives; he is fighting not for Vespasian but for Batavia.

Flaccus starts to prepare a counterattack to rescue the besieged legions.

Civilis is not going to wait until they were fully prepared and launches a surprise attack.

His best eight cavalry regiments in the evening of December 1 attack the Romans in Krefeld.

The Roman army wins the battle and destroys the Batavian cavalry, but their own losses are enormous.

Civilis, knowing that the Romans will come to Castra Vetera, abandons the siege and threatens to attack Moguntiacum.

The Romans are misled and rush to the rescue of their main base in Germania Inferior.

In Moguntiacum, they receive the news of Vespasian's accession to the throne.

Flaccus decides to celebrate the event by distributing a sum of money to the legions, but these legions are historically loyal to Vitellius, their former commander, and this act of generosity is interpreted as an offense.

Flaccus is murdered and his second-in-command deserts, leaving the Roman army in a state of confusion.

Civilis sees his chance and before the Romans know what is happening, his troops besiege Castra Vetera once more.

Veleda, a völva (priestess and prophet) of the Germanic tribe of the Bructeri, predicts the complete success of Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire.

It is not clear whether Veleda merely prophesied the rebellion or actively incited it; given the Germans' adoration of her as a goddess, remote in her tower, the distinction may not have been clear at the time.

The year 70 begins with the odds favoring the rebels.

Two legions are still besieged at Castra Vetera and the rest of the Roman army is not large enough to cope with the revolt.