Möngke, taking seriously the legacy of world conquest, decides to place primary emphasis on completing the conquest of Asia, particularly China; Europe is to be dealt with later.

Because the Song have had the benefit of a lull of nearly ten years in which to recover
and to reorganize, conquering Asia has become more difficult than it would have been earlier.

Möngke himself takes command, but he also places great responsibility on his younger brother, Kublai.

Another brother, Hulagu, is sent to Iran to renew the expansion of Mongol control in Southwest Asia.

Möngke encourages Batu to raid Central Europe, but does not send him additional resources.

Thus, although Batu's armies raid deep into Poland, Lithuania, and Estonia, and again overrun Serbia and Bulgaria, these campaigns are not so important as the ones being undertaken in Southeast Asia and Southwest Asia.

The horde of Kaidu Khan, three tumen strong, is to the north of the main body, protecting the right flank .

Kaidu sweeps through Lithuania and Poland; on March 18 he destroys the Polish army at Kraków.

He detaches a tumen to raid along the Baltic coast and with the remainder heads westward into Silesia.

On April 9, 1241, at Liegnitz (Legnica, in Poland), the more disciplined Mongol army decisively defeats a numerically superior combined European army in a bitterly contested battle.

East Europe (1252 – 1395 CE): Mongol Suzerainty, Novgorod’s Fur Republic, and Lithuania’s Expansion

Geographic and Environmental Context

East Europe includes Belarus, Ukraine, and the European portion of Russia (including the sixteen Russian republics west of the Urals).

• Anchors: the forest and forest-steppe zones of the Dnieper, Volga–Oka, and Upper Dvina basins; the steppe corridor north of the Black Sea; and the Novgorod–Pskov lakelands tied to the Baltic.

• Strategic axes: Dnieper–Desna, Volga–Oka, Western Dvina, and Don; Baltic connectors through Novgorod and Pskov.

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Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Late Medieval Warm Period yielded to the early Little Ice Age after c. 1300: longer winters, more frequent spring floods, and shorter growing seasons on the northern fringe.

• River freezes lengthened the winter over-ice transport season, facilitating fur and grain movement to urban markets.

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Societies and Political Developments

• Mongol conquest and the Golden Horde (Jochid ulus):

  • The Mongol campaigns (1237–1240) dismantled the Kievan Rus’ commonwealth. Principalities survived under Horde suzerainty—paying tribute (yasak), hosting basqaq agents, and using the Horde courier system (yam).

  • The Horde’s capitals at Sarai (lower Volga) coordinated levies and trade; steppe raids remained a constant frontier pressure.

• Vladimir–Suzdal’, Tver’, and Moscow:

  • On the Volga–Oka, rival knyaz lines competed for the Horde’s patent (yarlik) to the grand princely title of Vladimir.

  • Moscow rose from a junior appanage: Ivan I “Kalita” (1325–1341) secured the tribute-collector role, attracting boyars and clergy; Dmitry Donskoy defeated Mamai’s army at Kulikovo Field (1380), a landmark of resistance, though Toqtamish burned Moscow (1382).

• Novgorod and Pskov (veche republics):

  • The Novgorod Republic remained autonomous under Horde suzerainty by avoiding direct confrontation, governed by a popular assembly (veche) and posadniks.

  • It dominated the fur–wax–honey trades and dealt with the Hanseatic League via the kontor in Toruń/Visby; Pskov emerged as a semi-independent sister republic.

• Galicia–Volhynia and the rise of Lithuania:

  • King Danylo (Daniel) of Galicia (crowned 1253) revived the southwestern Rus’ realm, but by the 14th c. the Grand Duchy of Lithuania absorbed most Rus’ lands.

  • Under Gediminas (1316–1341) and Algirdas (victory at Blue Waters, 1362), Lithuania took Kiev and the Dnieper marches; after the Union of Krewo (1385) and Christianization of Lithuania (1387), a Polish-Lithuanian dynastic bloc formed, ruling much of Belarus and Ukraine.

• Steppe frontier:

  • Rus’ principalities, Lithuanian border castles, and later Moldavian and Wallachian states contested the Black Sea approaches amid shifting Horde factions.

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Economy and Trade

• Agrarian base: rye, oats, and barley dominated the forest zone; wheat and millet in the forest-steppe. Three-field rotation spread on the more southerly soils.

• Fur economy: sable, marten, squirrel, and fox from taiga and mixed forests remained the premier export through Novgorod–Hanse channels and via Volga routes to Sarai.

• Long-distance routes:

  • Volga corridor: grain, salt, fish, and crafted goods moved to the Horde markets and the Caspian.

  • Baltic corridor: Novgorod and Pskov exported furs, wax, and flax; imported silver, cloth, and salt through Hanseatic towns.

  • Dnieper–Black Sea traffic declined after the Mongol shock but partially revived under Lithuanian protection in the later 14th c.

• Urban crafts & coinage: smithing, tanning, and milling flourished in river towns; silver grivna bars and later fractional pennies circulated alongside foreign denars and Prague groschen.

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Subsistence and Technology

• Agriculture & stock: ard and heavy plough on loams; horse and ox traction; beekeeping (forest apiculture) supplied wax and honey.

• Fortifications: timber-earth ramparts and later stone kremlins (e.g., Moscow’s white-stone walls from 1367) secured capitals and river nodes.

• Transport: river barges in ice-free seasons; winter sled-trains along frozen rivers and packed snow routes; Horde yam way-stations accelerated couriers and tribute convoys.

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Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Volga–Oka–Klyazma triangle: heartland of northeast Rus’ power (Vladimir, Moscow, Tver’).

• Upper Dnieper–Pripet–Western Dvina: Lithuanian–Rus’ arteries binding Kiev, Smolensk, Polotsk, and Vilnius.

• Novgorod–Ladoga–Neva: gateway to the Baltic and Hanse.

• Steppe roads from Sarai to the Don/Lower Dnieper: conduits for tribute, trade, and raids.

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Belief and Symbolism

• Orthodox Christianity: the Metropolitan’s seat shifted from Kiev to Vladimir (1299) and effectively to Moscow (1325); monastic renewal under Sergius of Radonezh (d. 1392) anchored spiritual and agrarian colonization of the northeast.

• Latin Christianity: strong in Galicia–Volhynia and later within Lithuanian–Polish spheres; cathedral foundations and mendicant houses appeared in frontier towns.

• Mission & frontier faiths: St Stephen of Perm (d. 1396) evangelized among the Komi; in steppe zones, Islam advanced within the Horde elite while popular Tengrism persisted.

• Cult and memory: chronicles, saints’ lives, and battle legends (e.g., Kulikovo) forged shared identities across fragmented polities.

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Adaptation and Resilience

• Political layering: veche republics, appanage principalities, Horde suzerainty, and Lithuanian grand-ducal rule coexisted—allowing trade and church life to continue despite warfare.

• Route redundancy: when Dnieper routes faltered, Volga and Baltic corridors carried exchange; winter travel compensated for summer insecurity.

• Monastic colonization: cleared forests, drained bogs, and created agricultural oases that stabilized settlement and provided safe havens.

• Fiscal pragmatism: tribute arrangements with the Horde and yarlik politics bought breathing room for rising centers (notably Moscow).

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Long-Term Significance

By 1395, East Europe had reconfigured its political geography:

• The Golden Horde still dominated the steppe; yet its internal strife and Timur’s blows (1380s–1395) weakened control.

• Lithuania ruled most southwestern Rus’ lands, while Moscow emerged as the chief collector and defender in the northeast.

• Novgorod remained a Baltic fur-empire under veche rule.

• The Orthodox Church and monastic networks provided cohesion—laying the spiritual and institutional groundwork for Muscovy’s 15th-century ascent and for a durable Lithuanian-Rus’ commonwealth across the Dnieper and Dvina.

King Casimir III of Poland initiates campaigns to take Galicia-Volhynia upon the death of Bolesław Jerzy II of Mazovia in the mid-fourteenth century; these occur from 1340 to 1366.

The heartland of Rus', including Kiev, meanwhile becomes the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ruled by Gediminas and his successors, after the semi-legendary Battle on the Irpein River.

Following the 1386 Union of Krewo, a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, much of what will become northern Ukraine is ruled by the increasingly Slavicised local Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The so-called Galicia–Volhynia Wars end by 1392.

Polish colonizers of depopulated lands in northern and central Ukraine soon found or re-found many towns.

Belarus and part of Ukraine had come under the control of Lithuania in 1240 after the Tatar overthrow of Kiev, the dominant principality of Kievan Rus'.

The resulting state is called the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rus', and Samogitia.

Because territories inhabited by Slavs make up about ninety percent of the Grand Duchy, they exert a great cultural influence on the new state.

Official business is conducted in a Slavic language (a predecessor of both Belarusian and Ukrainian) based on Old Church Slavonic, and the law code is based on that of Kievan Rus'.

Lithuanians belong to the Baltic group of nations.

Their ancestors move to the Baltic region about 3000 BCE from beyond the Volga region of central Russia.

In Roman times, they trade amber with Rome and around CE 900-1000 split into different language groups, namely, Lithuanians, Prussians, Latvians, Semigallians, and others.

The Prussians are conquered by the Teutonic Knights, and, ironically, the name "Prussia" is taken over by the conquerors, who destroy or assimilate Prussia's original inhabitants.

Other groups also die out or are assimilated by their neighbors.

Only the Lithuanians and the Latvians survive the ravages of history.

Traditions of Lithuanian statehood date from the early Middle Ages.

As a nation, Lithuania emerges about 1230 under the leadership of Duke Mindaugas.

He unites Lithuanian tribes to defend themselves against attacks by the Teutonic Knights, who had conquered the kindred tribes of Prussia and also parts of present-day Latvia.

In 1251 Mindaugas had accepted Latin Christianity, and in 1253 he becomes king, but his nobles disagree with his policy of coexistence with the Teutonic Knights and with his search for access to western Europe.

Mindaugas is killed, the monarchy is discontinued, and the country reverts to paganism.

His successors look for expansion toward the Slavic East.

At this early stage of development, Lithuania has to face the historically recurring question dictated by its geopolitical position—whether to join western or eastern Europe.

The union of Poland with Lithuania, under a dynasty founded by the Lithuanian grand duke Jagiello, dominates is the next major period in Poland's history.

The partnership proves profitable for the Poles, who will play a dominant role in one of the most powerful empires in Europe for the next three centuries.

Poland's unlikely partnership with the adjoining Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Europe's last heathen state, provides an immediate remedy to the political and military dilemma caused by the end of the Piast Dynasty.

At the end of the fourteenth century, Lithuania is a warlike political unit with dominion over enormous stretches of present-day Belarus and Ukraine.

Putting aside their previous hostility, Poland and Lithuania see that they share common enemies, most notably the Teutonic Knights; this situation is the direct incentive for the Union of Krewo in 1385.

The compact hinges on the marriage of the Polish queen Jadwiga to Jagiello, who becomes king of Poland under the name Wladyslaw Jagiello.

In return, the new monarch accepts baptism in the name of his people, agrees to confederate Lithuania with Poland, and takes the name Wladyslaw II.

In 1387 the bishopric of Wilno is established to convert Wladyslaw's subjects to Roman Catholicism.
(Eastern Orthodoxy predominates in some parts of Lithuania.)

From a military standpoint, Poland receives protection from the Mongols and Tatars, while Lithuania receives aid in its long struggle against the Teutonic Knights.

Northeast Europe (1252–1263 CE): The Great Prussian Uprising and Crusader State Resilience

Introduction

Between 1252 and 1263 CE, Northeast Europe experienced pivotal conflicts, prominently the Great Prussian Uprising, the most severe challenge yet to the authority of the crusader states. Danish and German territories continued to consolidate political and ecclesiastical control, while Baltic resistance intensified, testing the limits of crusader dominance.

The Great Prussian Uprising

The most significant event of this period was the second major rebellion by the Baltic Prussians, known historiographically as the Great Prussian Uprising. It was the longest, largest, and most threatening challenge ever posed to the Teutonic Knights. At its peak, the uprising reduced Teutonic control once again to merely five of their strongest castles, severely endangering their presence in the region.

This massive rebellion demonstrated extraordinary coordination among the Prussian clans and marked the highest point of Baltic resistance during the Northern Crusades, fundamentally threatening crusader authority and forcing an extensive military response.

Crusader State Resilience and Territorial Consolidation

Despite this intense uprising, Danish and German crusader states managed to maintain their territories through strategic fortifications and resilient military actions. Danish control over Estonia, centered around Reval (Tallinn) and its fortress Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill, remained relatively stable due to effective administrative and military strategies.

The German-led Livonian Confederation, with its strategic hub at Riga, continued to consolidate its political and ecclesiastical institutions. Meanwhile, the Teutonic Knights, despite the uprising, firmly entrenched themselves through strategic strongholds, notably Königsberg, founded in 1255, which became central to their continued operations.

Swedish Expansion and Finnish Integration

Sweden continued its strategic colonization and missionary expansion into southern Finland, embedding its political and cultural influence deeper into Finnish territory. This process reinforced Finland's Scandinavian trajectory, contrasting sharply with the ongoing struggles experienced by Baltic peoples to the south.

Baltic Resistance and Its Impact

The fierce Prussian uprising galvanized other Baltic peoples, including Estonians, Latvians, Curonians, and notably the increasingly powerful Lithuanians, fostering broader regional resistance. Though ultimately unable to reverse crusader advances permanently, these rebellions significantly strained crusader resources and influenced their long-term strategies and territorial ambitions.

Economic Expansion and Urbanization

Urban growth and economic prosperity continued to flourish within established crusader territories. Major urban centers such as Reval (Tallinn), Riga, and Königsberg grew significantly in size and economic importance, while Visby on Gotland maintained its central position within Baltic maritime commerce, connecting the region more firmly to broader European trade networks.

Ecclesiastical Influence and Cultural Assimilation

Ecclesiastical structures further embedded their authority across conquered territories, particularly through the extensive presence of the Teutonic Order and other monastic communities. These institutions played critical roles in suppressing uprisings, promoting cultural assimilation, and expanding Christian influence, effectively facilitating deeper integration of Northeast Europe into Latin Christendom.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1252 to 1263 CE was pivotal for Northeast Europe, defined by the unprecedented scale of the Great Prussian Uprising and the resilience of crusader states in the face of such fierce opposition. These developments shaped regional politics, intensified cultural exchanges, and significantly influenced the enduring geopolitical landscape of Northeast Europe, setting lasting patterns of authority, resistance, and integration.

Mindaugas, the first known Grand Duke of Lithuania, a title he had gained in around 1235, had been crowned King of Lithuania in 1251.

He is generally considered the founder of the Lithuanian state, and the first leader to unite the Balts.

During the course of internal power struggles, he had been baptized as a Roman Catholic in 1250 or 1251; this action has enabled him to establish an alliance with the Livonian Order, and he is crowned King of Lithuania on June 29 or July 6, 1253.

However, as later events will show, Lithuanians are not prepared to accept Christianity, and Mindaugas' baptism is to have little impact on further developments.

Mindaugas accepts a crown from Pope Innocent IV in 1254; this new status helps him to contain the threat from the German Knights.