The Middle East: 909–766 BCE

Assyrian Imperial Surge and Expansion

Beginning with Adad-nirari II (911–891 BCE), the Neo-Assyrian Empire rapidly expands, firmly establishing itself as a dominant regional power. By 904 BCE, Babylonia is subdued and reduced to vassalage, and strategic control is secured along the Khabur River. Adad-nirari's military successes lay a robust foundation for Assyria's extensive territorial ambitions.

Consolidation and Brutality under Ashurnasirpal II

Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE) aggressively expands Assyria westward, reaching the Mediterranean by 859 BCE and incorporating influential Phoenician cities. Ashurnasirpal II's administration is marked by brutal reprisals against rebels, including mass executions and mutilations, instilling fear to suppress dissent. His lavish new capital at Kalhu (Nimrud), featuring monumental palaces and relief sculptures, symbolically projects Assyrian power and authority.

Continued Expansion and Conflict under Shalmaneser III

Shalmaneser III (859–824 BCE) extends Assyria's dominance further, notably conquering the powerful Aramaean state of Bit-Adini and engaging a regional coalition led by Damascus. Despite temporary resistance, Shalmaneser III successfully enforces tribute from Phoenician cities, Israel, and Damascus. His reign also witnesses increasing military confrontations with the emerging northern kingdom of Urartu, a significant competitor based near Lake Van.

Internal Turmoil and Territorial Instability

Internal strife emerges toward the end of Shalmaneser III’s rule, culminating in a civil war (828–826 BCE) against his rebellious son, Ashurdaninpal. This turmoil weakens central authority, leading to territorial losses. His successor, Shamsi-Adad V (824–811 BCE), gradually stabilizes the empire, incorporating the strategically vital region of Chaldea. Under Adad-nirari III (811–783 BCE), aided initially by Queen Sammuramat (legendary Semiramis), Assyria reasserts dominance, notably reclaiming Damascus by 804 BCE.

Cultural and Linguistic Influences of the Aramaeans and Phoenicians

The Aramaeans, influential traders settled in Greater Syria, significantly shape regional commerce and culture. They simplify the Phoenician alphabet, spreading Aramaic as the dominant lingua franca across the Middle East, even becoming the official language of the later Persian Empire. Meanwhile, the Phoenicians, despite Assyrian dominance, maintain extensive trade networks and cultural resilience. Artifacts such as the sarcophagus of King Ahiram from Byblos illustrate a vibrant exchange of Assyrian, Egyptian, and Phoenician artistic styles.

Anatolian and Iranian Regional Powers

In Anatolia, the Phrygians, heirs to Hittite cultural traditions, revitalize regional prosperity from their capital at Gordium. They excel in metalworking, woodcarving, and textiles, significantly influencing regional trade and cultural exchange. Concurrently, the Mannaean state emerges around 850 BCE in northwestern Iran, characterized by fortified cities, advanced irrigation, and horse breeding, representing an important regional power.

Emergence and Rivalries of Urartu

In the north, the kingdom of Urartu solidifies under King Aramu (circa 860–843 BCE), becoming a persistent and formidable rival to Assyria. Urartu's strategic fortifications and sustained resistance mark significant geopolitical shifts, frequently clashing with Assyrian ambitions.

Innovations in Assyrian Military and Artistic Expression

Assyrian military advancements, particularly in cavalry tactics, significantly enhance their imperial capabilities. Artistic and architectural achievements, notably the iconic man-headed winged bulls and elaborate palace reliefs, symbolize imperial power and divine sanction, emphasizing the Neo-Assyrian Empire’s cultural sophistication.

Cyprus: Political Consolidation and Urbanization

Cyprus experiences considerable urban growth and political consolidation during this period, with significant centers like the kingdom of Salamis flourishing through extensive trade networks. Monumental "Royal" tombs underscore the island’s rising wealth and social complexity.

Decline and Instability under Shalmaneser IV

Shalmaneser IV (782–772 BCE) faces severe setbacks, culminating in his defeat and death in 772 BCE, triggering internal chaos and territorial losses. This period of instability underscores the challenges Assyria faces in maintaining its extensive empire amidst ongoing regional conflicts.

Thus, the era from 909 to 766 BCE encapsulates a profound and transformative phase in Middle Eastern history, marked by dynamic imperial expansion, significant cultural exchanges, geopolitical rivalries, and internal political struggles that shape the region for centuries.

People called Mannaeans live in Iran’s present Azerbaijan province in the second millennium BCE.

Their kingdom is situated east and south of the Lake Urmia, roughly centered around the present-day city of Orumiyeh in the Azerbaijan region of Iran.

Excavations that began in 1956 succeeded in uncovering the fortified city of Hasanlu, once thought to be a potential Mannaean site.

More recently, the site of Qalaichi (possibly ancient Izirtu/Zirta) has been linked to the Mannaeans based on a stela with this toponym found at the site.

The Mannaeans' kingdom begins to flourish around 850 BCE.

They are mainly a settled people, practicing irrigation and breeding cattle and horses.

Their capital is another fortified city, Izirtu (Zirta).

They have expanded by the 820s BCE to become the first large state to occupy this region since the Gutians, later followed by the unrelated Iranic peoples, the Medes and the Persians.

They have developed a prominent aristocracy as a ruling class, who somewhat limit the power of the king.

The region becomes contested ground beginning around 800 BCE between the people of Urartu, who build several forts on the territory of Mannaea, and Assyria.

The Middle East: 765–622 BCE

Imperial Decline and Urartian Expansion

Beginning around 765 BCE, the Assyrian Empire experiences significant decline, marked by ominous events such as the eclipse of 763 BCE, devastating plagues, and internal revolts. This instability severely undermines Assyrian authority, enabling Urartu—a kingdom centered around Lake Van—to ascend as a powerful northern rival. Under King Argishtis I, Urartu expands dramatically, founding cities like Erebouni (modern Yerevan), temporarily dominating northern Syria, and even threatening Babylon. At its height, Urartu controls Armenia, parts of Georgia, and extensive regions of northern Mesopotamia, significantly challenging Assyrian dominance.

Tiglath-Pileser III and Assyrian Resurgence

Tiglath-Pileser III’s accession in 745 BCE dramatically reverses Assyrian fortunes. He quickly stabilizes the empire, implementing crucial military reforms by creating a permanent standing army and an effective bureaucracy. Between 740 and 732 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser leads decisive campaigns, defeating Syrian coalitions, capturing Damascus—the heart of the Aramaean kingdom—and annexing vassal states in eastern Anatolia. His actions involve extensive deportations, notably from northern Israel, integrating these regions firmly into Assyria. He also imposes tribute on Arabian tribes and reasserts control over Babylon, consolidating Assyria’s southern frontier.

Sargon II’s Conquests and Architectural Legacy

Sargon II significantly expands Assyrian domination, capturing strategic cities such as Carchemish in 717 BCE and weakening Urartu with a major campaign in 714 BCE. He commemorates these achievements by building a grand new capital, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad), featuring monumental gateways guarded by colossal winged bulls, ornate temples, and lavishly decorated royal palaces. Despite his successes, Sargon falls in battle against the Cimmerians in 705 BCE, marking a critical turning point for Assyria.

Sennacherib’s Rule and Babylonian Revolts

Sennacherib relocates the Assyrian capital to Nineveh, transforming it into a monumental city. His reign is dominated by internal rebellions, notably in Babylon, incited by the persistent Chaldean prince Marduk-apla-iddina II. In a brutal act in 689 BCE, Sennacherib razes Babylon, deeply shocking Mesopotamian society and perceived as sacrilegious. This ruthless act contributes to his assassination in 681 BCE, viewed contemporaneously as divine retribution.

Esarhaddon’s Diplomacy and Reconstruction

Ascending amidst turmoil, Esarhaddon quickly stabilizes the empire through diplomatic acumen. He rebuilds Babylon, restoring key religious sites, notably the Esagila temple, thereby regaining Babylonian favor. Esarhaddon adeptly manages threats from Cimmerians and Scythians through strategic alliances, securing Assyrian borders and revitalizing religious and cultural institutions across both Assyria and Babylonia.

Ashurbanipal: Scholar-King and Library Builder

Ashurbanipal rules with scholarly distinction, establishing a renowned library in Nineveh, amassing extensive collections of cuneiform texts from across Mesopotamia. Highly educated, he demonstrates scholarly and mathematical prowess, including the rare ability to interpret ancient Sumerian scripts. However, his reign is also notorious for cruelty towards defeated enemies, vividly depicted in reliefs and inscriptions. Although appearing peaceful later, underlying tensions and succession disputes foreshadow Assyrian fragility.

Fragmentation and Rise of Babylon and Media

Following Ashurbanipal’s death, Assyria plunges into a severe succession crisis involving multiple contenders, including Ashur-etil-ilani, Sinsharishkun, and general Sin-shumu-lishir. This internal chaos critically weakens Assyria. Concurrently, Nabopolassar leads a successful Chaldean rebellion, establishing Babylonian independence by 629 BCE. At the same time, Cyaxares of Media overthrows Scythian dominance, consolidating Media and preparing to confront Assyria. These developments set the stage for a decisive coalition of Babylonians and Medes, poised to end Assyrian dominance.

The language of the Cimmerians, who are believed to have been Indo-European, is regarded as related to Iranian or Thracian; they appear to have had an Iranian ruling class.

Documents dating to centuries earlier than Herodotus, such as intelligence reports to Sargon II, lead academic scholars making use of recent research to note that these identify the Cimmerians as living south rather than north of the Black Sea.

The first historical record of the Cimmerians, which appears in Assyrian annals in the year 714 BCE, describes how a people termed the Gimirri helped the forces of Sargon to defeat the kingdom of Urartu.

Their original homeland, called Gamir or Uishdish, seems to have been located within the buffer state of Mannae.

The later geographer Ptolemy placed the Cimmerian city of Gomara in this region.

Some modern authors assert that the Cimmerians included mercenaries, whom the Assyrians knew as Khumri, who had been resettled there by Sargon.

Later Greek accounts describe the Cimmerians as having previously lived on the steppes, between the Tyras (Dniester) and Tanais (Don) rivers.

Greek and Mesopotamian sources note several Cimmerian kings including Tugdamme (Lygdamis in Greek; mid-seventh century BCE), and Sandakhshatra (late-seventh century).

The Cimmerians had been expelled from the steppes by the Scythians according to the Histories of Herodotus, written in about 440 BCE, who states that the men of the Cimmerian royal family, to ensure burial in their ancestral homeland, divided into groups and fought each other to the death.

The Cimmerian commoners buried the bodies along the river Tyras and fled from the Scythian advance, across the Caucasus and into Anatolia and the Near East.

The original population area of the Median people was western Iran and named after them as "Media".

At the end of the second millennium BCE the Median tribes arrived in the region (one of several Iranian tribes to do so) which they later called Media.

These tribes expanded their control over larger areas subsequently and over a period of several hundred years the boundaries of Media moved.

An early description of the territory of Media by the Assyrians dates from the end of ninth century until the beginning of the seventh century BCE.

The southern border of Media, in this period, is named as the Elamite region of Simaški in present day Lorestan.

From the west and northwest it is bounded by the Zagros mountains and from the east by Dašt-e Kavir.

The region of Media is known to the Assyrians and described by them thus: "extended along the Great Khorasan Road from just east of Harhar to Alwand, and probably beyond.

It was limited on the north by Mannaea, on the south by Ellipi.

The location of Harhar is suggested to be "the central or eastern" Mahidasht in Kermanshah province.

After ensuring the allegiance of Babylonia, Esarhaddon campaigns in around 678 against the Medes under Khshathrita (Phraortes).

Later, Assyrian hosts reach the border of the "salt-desert" near the mountain Bikni, that is, near Teheran.

A number of fortresses secure the Zagros: Bit-Parnakki, Bit-kari and Harhar (Kar-Sharrukin).

Esarhaddon takes the towns of Sissu and Kundu in the Taurus Mountains in 676 BCE.

The Mannaeans, the Scythians under their king Ishpakaia, and the "Gutians" of the Zagros prove to be a nuisance as well, as is attested by numerous oracle-texts.

The Mannaeans, former vassals of the Assyrians, are no longer restricted to the area around Lake Urmia, but have spread into Zamua, where they have interrupted the horse trade between Parsuash and Assyria and refused to pay further tribute.

A daughter of Esarhaddon had been wedded to the Scythian prince Bartatua of Sakasene after the fall of Phrygia in order to improve relations with the nomads.

The Medes, an Iranian people who live in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran.

In the second half of the seventh century BCE, the Medes had gained their independence and been united by a dynasty.

The kings who established the Mede Empire are generally recognized to be Phraortes and his son Cyaxares, probably chieftains of a nomadic Mede tribe in the desert and on the south shore of the Caspian, the Manda, mentioned by Sargon, and they likely founded the capital at Ecbatana.

According to Herodotus, the conquests of Cyaxares the Mede were preceded by a Scythian invasion and domination lasting twenty-eight years (under Madius the Scythian, 653-625 BCE).

The Mede tribes seem to have come into immediate conflict with a settled state to the West known as Mannae, allied with Assyria.

Assyrian inscriptions state that the early Mede rulers, who had attempted rebellions against the Assyrians in the time of Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal, were allied with chieftains of the Ashguza (Scythians) and other tribes—who had come from the northern shore of the Black Sea and invaded Armenia and Asia Minor; and Jeremiah and Zephaniah in the Old Testament agree with Herodotus that a massive invasion of Syria and Philistia by northern barbarians had taken place in 626 BCE.

Under Cyarxes, the state of Mannae is finally conquered and assimilated by the Medes in the year 616 BCE.

In this year also, …

…the Medes unsuccessfully attack Nineveh, the fourth and most splendid capital of the Assyrian Empire.

At its zenith under Sennacherib (705-681 BCE), Esarhaddon (681-669 BCE), and Ashurbanipal (669-633 BCE), the city has massive walls eight miles in circumference, a water aqueduct, palaces, and a library with twenty thousand clay tablets, including accounts of a creation in Enuma Elish and a flood in the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Nineveh has grown to a population of some one hundred and twenty thousand by the end of the Neo-Assyrian period, and is possibly the largest city in the world at this time.