The Roman Empire interacts with Jutland and the Danish isles from the first to the fifth century in many ways, ranging from commerce to a possible "client state" relationship.

This period is therefore referred to as the Roman Iron Age.

The Roman provinces, whose frontiers stop short of Denmark, nevertheless maintain trade routes and relations with Danish or proto-Danish peoples, as attested by finds of Roman coins.

The earliest known runic inscription dates back to about CE 200.

Both animal and human sacrifice occur and bodies are immersed in bogs occasionally during this time.

In recent times some of these bog bodies have emerged very well-preserved, providing valuable information about the religion and people who lived in Denmark during this period.

Some of the most well-preserved bog bodies from the Nordic Iron Age are the Tollund Man and the Grauballe Man.

Depletion of cultivated land in the last century BCE seems to have contributed to increasing migrations in northern Europe and increasing conflict between Teutonic tribes and Roman settlements in Gaul.

Roman artifacts are especially common in finds from the first century.

It seems clear that some part of the Danish warrior aristocracy served in the Roman army.

Southwest Europe (909 BCE – 819 CE): From Roman Seas to Mountain Kingdoms

Regional Overview

Between the wine-dark coasts of the western Mediterranean and the storm-swept bays of the Atlantic, Southwest Europe bridged the worlds of classical empire and early medieval kingdom.
From the Po Valley and Sicilian ports to the Cantabrian uplands and Galician headlands, it was a region of deep historical layering — Roman legacies enduring beneath Lombard strongholds, Visigothic courts, and the early Christian monarchies of Iberia.
By the early ninth century CE, the Mediterranean and Atlantic spheres were diverging yet intertwined: one turning toward the Byzantine–Islamic maritime system, the other toward Carolingian and Asturian frontiers that would shape Europe’s western destiny.

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Geography and Environment

Southwest Europe is defined by its dual maritime faces — the Mediterranean littoral of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and southeastern Iberia, and the Atlantic–Cantabrian rim of northern Spain and Portugal.
Volcanic uplands, mountain arcs (the Apennines and Cantabrians), and fertile basins like the Po Valley and Douro formed alternating belts of abundance and refuge.
A Mediterranean climate dominated the south and east: wet winters, hot summers, and dependable harvests of grain, vines, and olives.
Along the Atlantic, milder and wetter conditions favored forests, pastures, and fisheries.
Rivers — Po, Tiber, Douro, Tagus, and Ebro — were arteries of settlement and trade, linking inland towns to their maritime outlets.

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Societies and Political Developments

Mediterranean Core: From Empire to Maritime Republics

In Italy and the central Mediterranean, the dissolution of Roman order yielded a mosaic of powers.
Byzantine administrators retained control over southern Italy, Sicily, and Malta, while Lombard duchies dominated the interior.
Ports such as Naples, Venice, and Palermo emerged as autonomous or semi-autonomous nodes in the seaborne networks that connected Europe to the Byzantine and Islamic worlds.
Further west, Visigothic Hispania maintained tenuous unity until the early eighth century, when the Umayyad conquest (711 CE) reshaped Iberia’s Mediterranean coast.

Atlantic Uplands: Christian Refuge and Frontier Consolidation

North of the Ebro, the Kingdom of Asturias consolidated resistance in the mountain bastions of Galicia and León.
Its rugged geography favored small, defensible communities and itinerant courts rather than expansive bureaucracy.
Along the Galician and Portuguese coasts, fishing villages and riverine settlements survived upheaval by turning outward — trading timber, salt, and grain northward to Brittany and the Channel.
These Atlantic zones preserved older Roman and Celtic traditions while integrating Christian monasticism and the emerging pilgrimage cult of St. James, whose shrine at Compostela would later knit western Christendom together.

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Economy and Trade

The region’s economy remained diverse and regionally specialized.

• Mediterranean Southwest Europe continued the Roman pattern of intensive agriculture: grain, vines, olives, and citrus along irrigated lowlands, complemented by pottery, glassware, textiles, and metalwork in coastal workshops.

• Maritime commerce bound the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic cities to North Africa, the Levant, and Byzantine Greece, exchanging oil, wine, salt, and spices.

• In Atlantic Southwest Europe, mixed farming and transhumant pastoralism supported highland communities, while fisheries, salt pans, and shipyards sustained coastal trade.
  The Rhone and Po valleys served as inland corridors to Central Europe, while the Douro and Tagus linked Iberia’s uplands to the Atlantic.

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Technology and Material Culture

Roman engineering remained the skeleton of the landscape: aqueducts, roads, and terraced farms continued in use long after imperial authority waned.
In the Lombard and Byzantine zones, stone fortifications and church complexes dominated townscapes.
Shipbuilding flourished: Mediterranean galleys with lateen sails and Atlantic cogs adapted to rougher seas both expanded in sophistication.
Water mills powered flour production in Alpine and Galician valleys, while terraced vineyards and olive groves reclaimed slopes once abandoned during late antiquity.

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Belief and Symbolism

Christianity unified this fragmented world while expressing regional diversity.
The Papacy in Rome and the monasteries of Monte Cassino and Cluny (just beyond this region’s northern edge) revitalized learning and administration.
In Iberia, Christian identity crystallized through resistance to Islamic rule; monasteries in Asturias and Galicia became bastions of literacy and art.
Across the Mediterranean coasts, Byzantine mosaics and basilicas echoed Rome’s sacred heritage, while Sicilian and Sardinian churches absorbed eastern iconography.
In all lands, sacred geography — from the pilgrim roads of Compostela to the tombs of saints and martyrs — replaced imperial capitals as centers of meaning.

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Adaptation and Resilience

The fusion of agricultural stability, maritime trade, and religious cohesion gave Southwest Europe remarkable resilience.
The Mediterranean cities adapted through commerce and diplomacy, sustaining continuity amid invasion; the Atlantic uplands relied on self-sufficiency, kinship, and geography to survive as Christian enclaves.
Environmental flexibility — terrace farming, irrigation, diversified herding — ensured survival through droughts and political shocks alike.

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Regional Synthesis and Long-Term Significance

By 819 CE, Southwest Europe embodied the meeting of three worlds:

• The Byzantine–Mediterranean East, linked through Italian ports and island fortresses;

• The Islamic South, newly established in Iberia and Sicily;

• The Frankish and Christian North, consolidating in the Pyrenees and the Loire.

This region’s mountain refuges, fortified coasts, and enduring cities preserved Roman infrastructures while incubating new cultural forms — Christian monastic learning, Lombard law, and seafaring enterprise.
It was here, along these seas and uplands, that Europe’s western Mediterranean civilization survived the disintegration of empire and prepared for the revival of the medieval Mediterranean world that would follow.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (909 BCE – CE 819): Maritime Cities, Mountain Frontiers, and Cultural Crossroads

Geographic and Environmental Context

Mediterranean Southwest Europe includes Italy (together with Sardinia and Sicily), Malta, Southeastern Spain, and the Balearic Islands.

• The subregion features the Italian Peninsula, volcanic uplands such as Mount Etna and Vesuvius, the Apennines, fertile river plains like the Po Valley, and extensive Mediterranean coastlines.

• Its strategic islands and ports made it a focal point for maritime trade and naval power in the central and western Mediterranean.

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Climate and Environmental Shifts

• A Mediterranean climate with wet winters and dry summers favored vineyards, olive groves, and grain cultivation.

• Seasonal rainfall variability could impact agricultural yields, prompting the use of irrigation in some areas.

• Volcanic activity occasionally disrupted local economies but also enriched soils.

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Societies and Political Developments

• The early medieval centuries saw the transition from Late Roman provincial governance to the Byzantine administration in parts of southern Italy and the islands, and the rise of Lombard rule in much of the peninsula.

• Coastal Spain experienced both Visigothic and, after 711 CE, Umayyad control.

• Maritime cities such as Naples, Venice, and Palermo became vital trade hubs, with varying degrees of autonomy under larger political powers.

• Malta and the Balearics were contested by Byzantine, North African, and Iberian interests.

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Economy and Trade

• Agriculture produced grain, wine, olive oil, fruits, and vegetables for local use and export.

• Craft industries produced pottery, glassware, and metalwork.

• Maritime trade linked the subregion to North Africa, the Levant, and Atlantic Europe, carrying goods such as spices, textiles, and precious metals.

• The Po Valley and other fertile plains supplied surplus grain to urban markets.

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Subsistence and Technology

• Terrace farming on steep slopes maximized cultivation of vines and olives.

• Roman-era aqueducts and irrigation systems remained in use in many areas.

• Shipbuilding flourished in coastal cities, with vessels adapted for both trade and warfare.

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Movement and Interaction Corridors

• The Mediterranean Sea served as the principal conduit for commerce and cultural exchange.

• Alpine passes connected northern Italy to transalpine trade routes into West Central Europe.

• Coastal shipping routes linked Italian and Spanish ports to island markets and North African harbors.

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Belief and Symbolism

• Christianity was the dominant faith, with the Papacy in Rome exerting significant spiritual and political influence.

• Monasteries, cathedrals, and churches served as cultural centers, preserving classical learning and fostering the arts.

• Religious architecture and mosaics reflected a blend of Roman, Byzantine, and local traditions.

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Adaptation and Resilience

• Economic diversity across agriculture, trade, and crafts provided resilience against localized crises.

• Coastal defenses and fortified hill towns protected against raids, especially from seaborne attackers.

• Control of strategic straits and ports ensured influence over maritime traffic.

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Long-Term Significance

By CE 819, Mediterranean Southwest Europe was a maritime and cultural hub bridging western Europe, the Byzantine world, and North Africa, maintaining continuity with its Roman past while adapting to shifting political realities.

North Africa (909 BCE – 819 CE) Early Iron and Antiquity — Phoenicians and Carthage, Numidian–Mauretanian Kingdoms, Rome, Garamantes, and Late Antique Transitions

Geographic and Environmental Context

North Africa includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia (Ifriqiya), Libya (Tripolitania–Fezzan–Cyrenaica), and Western Sahara.

Anchors: the Atlas ranges (High/Middle/Anti-Atlas; Tell Atlas; Aurès), the Tell and Sahel coasts (Atlantic Morocco, Rif/Alboran, Kabylia, Ifriqiya, Syrte/Gulf of Sidra, Cyrenaica), the Saharan platforms and sand seas (Erg Chech, Grand Erg Occidental & Oriental, Tanezrouft), the oases and basins (Tafilalt, Draâ, Touat–Gourara–Tidikelt, M’zab, Wadi Igharghar, Fezzan (Wadi al-Ajyal, Ubari and Murzuq dunes)), and the trans-Saharan corridors toward Lake Chad, Niger Bend, and the Nile.

• Coasts: Phoenician and later Punic ports (Carthage, Utica, Hippo Regius, Leptis Magna, Sabratha, Oea/Tripoli, Lixus, Mogador); Greek Cyrenaica (Cyrene).

• Interior: Garamantes in Fezzan; Numidia (Aurès–Constantine) and Mauretania (Rif–Atlas) uplands.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• Mediterranean coasts temperate; interior arid but stable around engineered oases.

Societies & Political Developments

• Phoenician colonization (from 9th–8th c. BCE) culminated in Carthage (trad. 814 BCE); Punic hegemony fostered trade and urbanism.

• Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms crystallized (2nd–1st c. BCE), later client to Rome; Cyrenaica Greek cities flourished in the east.

• Rome created Africa Proconsularis, Numidia, Mauretania Caesariensis/Tingitana, Tripolitania, Cyrenaica; roads, aqueducts, ports (grain, olive oil, garum).

• Garamantes (ca. 500 BCE–500 CE) dominated Fezzan, controlling desert trade with foggaras, walled towns, and chariot/camel trails.

• Late Antiquity: Vandals (5th c. CE) seized coastal Africa; Byzantines reconquered (6th c.); Berberconfederacies expanded inland; Islamic polities advanced in the 7th–8th c. CE, establishing Kairouan and early dynasties; by the 8th–9th c., Idrisids rose in Morocco.

Economy & Trade

• Coastal exports: grain, olive oil, wine, salted fish, purple dye; interior trade: salt, dates, gold, slaves, ivory; oasis produce and transshipment (Fezzan, Touat).

• Caravan systems matured between Fezzan ↔ Niger Bend/Lake Chad and Tripolitania/Cyrenaica ↔ Nile.

Technology & Material Culture

• Iron widespread; Roman engineering (roads, bridges, aqueducts; port moles).

• Oasis technologies: foggaras/khettaras, cisterns, terrace gardens; wheel-made ceramics, glass.

• Urban mosaics, Punic and Roman inscriptions; desert fortlets and tumuli fields.

Belief & Symbolism

• Punic religion (Baal Hammon–Tanit) across ports; Greek/Roman polytheism then Christianity in cities; Judaism in port communities;

• Amazigh (Berber) cults of springs, mountains, and ancestors persisted; Garamantian funerary landscapes extensive; Islam spread in the late centuries of this epoch.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Coastal breadbasket + oasis waterworks + caravan redundancy ensured stability; mixed agrarian–pastoral portfolios buffered shocks.

Transition

By 819 CE, North Africa was a polycentric frontier: Punic–Roman urban legacies, Garamantian oasis know-how, and rising Islamic–Amazigh polities formed the launching pad for the 9th–14th-century Almoravid, Almohad, Marinid/Hafsid/Zayyanid transformations to come.

Northwest Europe (909 BCE – CE 819): Maritime Kingdoms, Monastic Centers, and Atlantic Trade

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwest Europe includes Iceland, Ireland, the United Kingdom, western Norway, and western Denmark.

• The subregion faces the North Atlantic Ocean and North Sea, with rugged coasts, fjords, and numerous islands.

• Its maritime position fosters connections to the Baltic Sea, North Sea basin, and Atlantic trade routes.

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Climate and Environmental Shifts

• A temperate maritime climate moderated by the North Atlantic Drift brought mild winters and cool summers, though storms were frequent.

• Shorter growing seasons in northern zones encouraged reliance on pastoralism and fishing.

• Occasional climatic shifts, including colder intervals in the early medieval centuries, impacted crop yields and seafaring conditions.

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Societies and Political Developments

• In the British Isles, Celtic kingdoms such as Dal Riata, Dyfed, and Gwynedd coexisted with Anglo-Saxon kingdoms including Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria.

• Pictish polities in northern Scotland maintained distinct cultural and artistic traditions.

• Norwegian and Danish coastal societies were evolving toward the seafaring culture that would define the Viking Age.

• Irish monasteries became influential centers of learning, missionary activity, and manuscript production, extending their reach across the North Atlantic.

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Economy and Trade

• Agriculture combined cereal farming with cattle, sheep, and pig husbandry, adapted to local soils and climates.

• Fishing for cod, herring, and shellfish was vital for coastal and island communities.

• Trade moved wool, salted fish, iron tools, and quernstones, with imports including wine, glassware, and luxury goods from Francia, the Mediterranean, and Scandinavia.

• Ireland and parts of Britain exported slaves as part of the wider North Sea economy.

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Subsistence and Technology

• Plough agriculture spread in fertile lowlands, while upland and island communities relied more heavily on livestock.

• Shipbuilding in clinker-built styles advanced in both Norse and Anglo-Saxon contexts, enabling open-sea voyages.

• Metalworking produced high-quality weapons, tools, and ornate jewelry, often in Insular art styles.

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Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Sea lanes connected the British Isles to Scandinavia, Francia, and the Iberian Peninsula.

• Coastal settlements and river estuaries served as trade and communication hubs.

• Long-distance voyaging linked western Norway and the British Isles to Iceland and other North Atlantic islands.

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Belief and Symbolism

• Celtic and Germanic pagan traditions persisted alongside the spread of Christianity, which by this period had established firm roots in most of the subregion.

• Monastic scriptoria produced illuminated manuscripts, blending religious devotion with elaborate artistic expression.

• Standing stones, crosses, and earthworks served as cultural markers of identity and faith.

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Adaptation and Resilience

• Maritime orientation allowed communities to shift economic focus between fishing, trade, and raiding depending on conditions.

• Diverse subsistence strategies buffered against localized crop failures.

• Political alliances and dynastic marriages helped consolidate power in fragmented landscapes.

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Long-Term Significance

By CE 819, Northwest Europe had become a maritime crossroads linking the British Isles, Scandinavia, and the wider North Atlantic world, with monastic culture, seafaring skills, and regional trade networks setting the stage for the Viking Age.

Jewish Revolts and the Dispersal of Jewish Communities (2nd Century CE)

The second century CE saw a series of devastating Jewish revolts that disrupted the Pax Romana, leading to widespread destruction, mass displacement, and the expulsion of Jews from many parts of the eastern Mediterranean, including most of Palestine. These revolts significantly altered the Jewish diaspora, leading to the further dispersion of Jewish communities across the Roman Empire and beyond.

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Major Jewish Revolts of the 2nd Century CE

1. The Kitos War (115–117 CE)

   • A widespread Jewish uprising broke out across Cyrene, Egypt, Cyprus, and Mesopotamia.
   • The rebellion was brutally suppressed by Roman forces, leading to massacres and forced displacements.
   • Jews were expelled from Cyprus, and their communities in North Africa and the Levant were significantly weakened.

2. The Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE)

   • The most significant of the Jewish uprisings, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the rule of Emperor Hadrian.
   • The revolt was sparked by Hadrian’s policies, including the banning of Jewish religious practices and the establishment of a Roman colony (Aelia Capitolina) on the ruins of Jerusalem.
   • Roman forces, under General Julius Severus, responded with overwhelming force, killing hundreds of thousands of Jews.
   • Judea was devastated, its population decimated, and Jewish settlements were razed.
   • The province of Judea was renamed "Syria Palaestina", a deliberate move to erase Jewish identity from the region.

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The Jewish Diaspora and New Centers of Jewish Life

Following these revolts, Jews were forcibly expelled or fled to various regions, leading to the growth of Jewish communities elsewhere:

• Arabia – Jewish settlements expanded in Yemen, Hejaz, and other parts of the Arabian Peninsula, influencing pre-Islamic Arabia.
• Georgia – Jewish communities took root in the Caucasus, where they became a recognized minority.
• Crimea – Some Jews settled in the Black Sea region, contributing to the early Jewish-Khazar connections.
• Italy, Gaul, and Spain – The Western Roman Empire saw an increase in Jewish migration, leading to early Jewish communities in Rome, southern France, and the Iberian Peninsula.

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Consequences and Legacy

• The failure of the Jewish revolts led to severe Roman repression, permanently altering Jewish demographics and cultural identity.
• The diaspora expanded, leading to the establishment of Jewish centers outside of Palestine that would remain influential for centuries.
• The Romanization of Judea (renamed Syria Palaestina) marked the final stage of Jewish loss of sovereignty until the modern era.

The Jewish revolts of the 2nd century CE fundamentally reshaped Jewish history, transforming a once-centralized people into a widespread and enduring diaspora, influencing global Jewish culture for millennia.

East Europe (100–243 CE): Sarmatian Power and Roman Influence

Political and Military Developments

Sarmatian Dominance and Expansion

From 100 to 243 CE, the Sarmatians maintained significant control over the Pontic–Caspian steppe, asserting military power through formidable cavalry units, especially their heavily armored cataphracts. Their territories expanded further westward, directly influencing European tribes and occasionally clashing with the expanding Roman Empire's eastern provinces.

Interactions with the Roman Empire

Increased interactions occurred between the Sarmatians and the Roman Empire, particularly along the Danube frontier. These interactions varied from military confrontations to alliances, with Rome recruiting Sarmatian cavalry into its auxiliary forces, profoundly affecting Roman military practices.

Economic and Technological Developments

Expansion and Diversification of Trade

The established Eurasian trade routes under Sarmatian control continued to flourish, bringing prosperity through the exchange of precious metals, textiles, amber, furs, and horses. Roman demand for these goods intensified trade interactions, notably enriching the Sarmatian aristocracy.

Military Innovation and Influence

Technological and tactical advancements by the Sarmatians, notably in armor production and cavalry warfare, further influenced Roman military reforms. The Romans integrated elements of Sarmatian armor and tactics, enhancing the effectiveness of their forces.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Sarmatian Artistic Maturity

Sarmatian art reached new heights of refinement, characterized by intricate metalwork and decorative motifs incorporating animal symbolism, geometric patterns, and Mediterranean influences. Jewelry and ceremonial weaponry from this period highlight sophisticated craftsmanship and cultural synthesis.

Increasing Roman Cultural Exchange

Exposure to Roman artistic and cultural practices increased through trade and military collaboration. This period saw growing Roman influence in architecture, pottery, coinage, and burial customs within territories influenced by the Sarmatians.

Settlement Patterns and Urban Development

Urbanization and Trade Centers

Cities and trade centers, particularly within and around the Bosporan Kingdom, continued to grow and urbanize, driven by prosperous trade networks. Urban centers such as Panticapaeum expanded, becoming focal points of economic and cultural exchange.

Development of Chernyakhov Culture

Emerging around the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries CE, the Chernyakhov culture became prominent in areas of modern-day Ukraine and Moldova. This archaeological culture demonstrated sophisticated settlement structures, diversified agriculture, and increased interaction with both Sarmatian and Roman influences.

Social and Religious Developments

Elite Hierarchy and Aristocratic Wealth

Sarmatian society maintained clear hierarchical distinctions. Aristocratic warriors continued to express status through richly adorned burial practices, including elaborate grave goods, luxurious weaponry, and ornate personal adornments.

Syncretism and Evolving Religious Practices

Religious practices became increasingly syncretic, incorporating Roman, Greek, Iranian, and local traditions. This syncretism was particularly evident in burial rites, religious iconography, and ritual artifacts found in archaeological contexts.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 100 to 243 CE reinforced the prominent role of the Sarmatians as influential cultural intermediaries between East Europe and the Roman world. Their significant military and cultural interactions with Rome and the continued economic prosperity through extensive trade networks set lasting precedents, shaping subsequent historical developments across the region.

Little has been found in Norway dating from the early Iron Age (the last 500 years BCE).

The dead were cremated, and their graves contain few burial goods.

During the first four centuries CE, the people of Norway are in contact with Roman-occupied Gaul.

About seventy Roman bronze cauldrons, often used as burial urns, have been found.

Contact with the civilized countries farther south brings a knowledge of runes; the oldest known Norwegian runic inscription dates from the third century.

At this time, the amount of settled area in the country increases, a development that can be traced by coordinated studies of topography, archaeology, and place-names.

The oldest root names, such as nes, vik, and bø ("cape," "bay," and "farm"), are of great antiquity, dating perhaps from the Bronze Age, whereas the earliest of the groups of compound names with the suffixes vin ("meadow") or heim ("settlement"), as in Bjǫrgvin (Bergen) or Sǿheim (Seim), usually date from the first century CE.

Archaeologists will first make the decision to divide the Iron Age of Northern Europe into distinct pre-Roman and Roman Iron Ages after Emil Vedel unearths a number of Iron Age artefacts in 1866 on the island of Bornholm.

They do not exhibit the same permeating Roman influence seen in most other artifacts from the early centuries CE, indicating that parts of northern Europe had not yet come into contact with the Romans at the beginning of the Iron Age.