Mediterranean Southwest Europe (765–622 BCE):

Greek Colonization, Phoenician Expansion, and Early Etruscan Influence

Between 765 and 622 BCE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe—including Italy, southwestern Spain, Andorra, and the Western Mediterranean Islands (excluding Corsica)—undergoes dynamic cultural and political transformations. This period sees intensified Greek colonization in Sicily and southern Italy (Magna Graecia), expanded Phoenician settlement across the region, and the rising prominence of the Etruscans, setting the stage for Rome's early development.

Greek Colonization of Magna Graecia

Greek settlers, notably from Chalcis, Corinth, Megara, and Sparta, begin establishing permanent colonies in Sicily and southern Italy from about 750 BCE onward. Important early settlements include Cumae (founded ca. 750 BCE), the first significant Greek mainland colony in the west, serving as a key center of trade and culture near present-day Naples. In Sicily, Chalcidian Greeks found Naxos (734 BCE), Zankle (Messina) (730 BCE), and Catana (ca. 729 BCE). Corinthian Greeks under Archias settle Syracuse (734 BCE), soon to become a dominant city-state in Sicily.

The Megaran Greeks establish commercial colonies such as Megara Hyblaea (728 BCE), subsequently founding the influential colony of Selinus in western Sicily around 651 BCE. Settlements like Leontini (729 BCE), Gela (688 BCE), and Himera (649 BCE) rapidly expand Greek influence throughout Sicily.

On mainland Italy, Achaeans from Sybaris and Croton found prosperous cities including Metapontum (ca. 700 BCE) and Caulonia. The Spartans colonize the strategic site of Taras (Taranto) around 706 BCE, establishing Spartan political and cultural practices. Another significant colony, Locri Epizephyrii, emerges in 680 BCE, becoming notable for adopting one of Europe's earliest written law codes under Zaleucus (ca. 660 BCE).

Phoenician Maritime Expansion and Settlement

Phoenician traders from Tyre actively expand their settlements along the Western Mediterranean shores, consolidating their economic and cultural presence in the region. Around 800 BCE, Phoenicians settle extensively on Sardinia, including the strategic port of Karalis (modern Cagliari), providing crucial links to their African trade networks.

Further west, they establish the colony of Ibossim (modern Ibiza) around 654 BCE, which rapidly emerges as a vital hub for maritime trade. Phoenician expansion on the Iberian Peninsula continues with the reinforcement of cities like Gadir (Cádiz) and Malaka (Málaga), cementing Phoenician influence across southern Iberia.

Early Rome and the Villanovan Cultural Legacy

Central Italy experiences significant cultural continuity and transformation. The Villanovan culture (900–700 BCE), associated with the early Iron Age in Italy, establishes a foundation for subsequent Etruscan civilization. In approximately 753 BCE, local Latins and Sabines associated with the Villanovan tradition found Rome, according to tradition, under Romulus on the Palatine Hill.

Roman mythology vividly details Rome’s foundation, including stories such as the Rape of the Sabine Women, representing early integration of Latin and Sabine populations. Numa Pompilius, Rome's second king (715–673 BCE), introduces significant religious and calendar reforms, creating the position of Pontifex Maximus around 712 BCE, which profoundly shapes Roman religious practices.

Emergence and Expansion of the Etruscans

The Etruscans, arising from the Villanovan cultural milieu, significantly impact central Italy. Notable artistic achievements, such as finely decorated tombs (Tomb of the Ducks, ca. 675–650 BCE) at Veii, demonstrate the sophistication of Etruscan art and culture. Around 625 BCE, Etruscan power extends into Latin territories as they cross the Tiber to dominate the settlements collectively known as Roma, introducing the influential Tarquinian dynasty. Their urban planning, governance structures, and cultural practices lay essential groundwork for Rome's future prominence.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 765 to 622 BCE fundamentally transforms Mediterranean Southwest Europe. Greek colonization dramatically reshapes Sicily and southern Italy, creating lasting cultural and economic connections between Magna Graecia and mainland Greece. Concurrent Phoenician maritime expansion secures extensive trade networks and solidifies cultural influence across Sardinia, Ibiza, and southern Iberia. In Italy, the rise of the Etruscans and their integration with Latin and Sabine peoples profoundly influences early Roman civilization, setting crucial foundations for subsequent historical developments in the Western Mediterranean.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (753–742 BCE):

Foundation of Rome and Greek Colonization at Cumae

Between 753 and 742 BCE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe sees profound developments, notably the legendary foundation of Rome and the establishment of the Greek colony at Cumae—two events that significantly shape the cultural and political landscape of Italy.

Foundation of Rome: Myth and Historical Reality

According to tradition, on April 21, 753 BCE, Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia, found the city of Rome on the Palatine Hill near a strategic ford on the Tiber River. Scholars widely accept this date as symbolically representing Rome's origins, even though the actual founders were likely local Latins and Sabines, culturally linked to the late Villanovan tradition. The Romans adopt the Etruscan alphabet, itself adapted from Greek scripts, marking an essential cultural integration. Rome’s legendary early history includes significant episodes such as the Rape of the Sabine Women, reflecting historical tensions and cultural exchanges between Romans and neighboring Sabine communities.

Cumae: Gateway of Greek Culture into Italy

Around 750 BCE, Greeks from Chalcis and Eretria found Cumae, located approximately twelve miles (nineteen kilometers) west of modern Naples, making it the first significant mainland Greek colony in the western Mediterranean. The city rapidly becomes a crucial trade and cultural hub, exerting significant influence over the fertile Campanian plain. Cumae is famously associated with a renowned Sibyl, a prophetess whose cave still exists, symbolizing the intersection of mythology, religion, and early urbanization in southern Italy.

Legacy of the Era

This formative era sets foundational precedents: Rome emerges as a culturally hybrid city, influenced profoundly by neighboring peoples such as the Etruscans and Sabines, and characterized by traditions that blend myth and historical reality. Concurrently, the establishment of Cumae initiates extensive Greek colonization, embedding lasting Hellenic cultural and political influence into Italy, notably contributing to the emergence of what will later be termed Magna Graecia.

Latins move into Italy by the middle of the eighth century BCE.

Local Latins and Sabines of the Villanovan culture are probably the actual founders of the city of Rome in the eighth century BCE, a date compatible with the Roman tradition.

According to Roman mythology, Romulus and Remus were sons of the god Mars and Rhea Silvia, a vestal virgin and the daughter of Numitor, king of Alba Longa, who had been driven from his throne by Amulius.

After birth the usurper placed the twins in a container and cast them upon the Tiber, but they floated ashore and were nursed by a bitch wolf until found and raised by the shepherd Faustulus and his wife, Acca Laurentia.

(Plutarch alleges they were also fed by a woodpecker, the bird sacred to Mars).

Upon reaching maturity, the twins restore Numitor to his throne and, on April 21, 753 (at that time the date of the vernal equinox, an event sacred to Mars), establish Rome on the Palatine Hill, one of seven proximate hills in the midst of a dozen Etruscan cities in central Italy.

Set by Varro in the first century BCE, this is the most common date used as the beginning of the Roman 'Ab urbe condita' calendar.

Rome adopts the Etruscan alphabet, which the Etruscans themselves had adopted from the Greeks.

The brothers rule jointly for a while, then quarrel, whereupon Romulus, heeding an omen indicating that he is the true founder of the city, kills Remus and becomes the first king of Rome.

(Romans will venerate Romulus as Quirinus, god of the winter solstice).

Romulus, according to Rome's early semi-legendary history, founds an asylum for fugitives on the Capitoline Hill, establishes the establishes the Senate and divides the people into tribal units.

He seeks to obtain women as wives for his male citizens.

After delegation sent to nearby regions requesting wives are refused, Romulus devises a festival of Neptune Equester and proclaims the festival among Rome's neighbors.

The citizens of nearby Caenina (the Caeninenses) attendthe festival along with many others of Rome's neighbors, including the Crustumini, and Antemnates, and many of the Sabines.

At the festival Romulus gives a signal, at which the Romans grab the virgins among the spectators for wives.

This event is known as The Rape of the Sabine Women.

(This legend, if such it be, probably developed to explain Rome’s population of Sabines, who lived in the Sabine hills northeast of Rome and maintained an antagonistic relationship with the Latin city.

Scholars believe many Roman religious practices to be Sabine in origin.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (741–730 BCE):

Greek Colonization in Southern Italy and Sicily

Between 741 and 730 BCE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe experiences intensive Greek colonization, establishing permanent settlements in southern Italy and Sicily. These colonies, primarily driven by trade, significantly shape the region culturally, economically, and politically, laying foundations for the area later known as Magna Graecia.

Foundation of Syracuse and Naxos

In 734 BCE, Corinthian settlers led by the aristocrat Archias establish Syracuse on the east coast of Sicily. The settlers form an elite class (gamoroi), dominating the indigenous Sicel populations, who are forced into agricultural labor. Simultaneously, Chalcidian settlers under Theocles (Thucles) establish Naxos around 734 BCE near modern Taormina, marking Sicily's earliest known Greek colony.

Establishment of Zankle (Messina)

The Chalcidians from Euboea found Zankle (modern Messina) around 730 BCE at a strategic location on the Strait of Messina, opposite Reggio di Calabria. Named for its sickle-shaped harbor, Zankle becomes a vital maritime and commercial center, connecting Sicily to mainland Italy and the wider Greek world.

Commercial Expansion via Ischia and Pithecusae

Around 730 BCE, permanent Greek colonies based on metals trade thrive at Ischia and Pithecusae, islands off the western coast of southern Italy. These trade-driven settlements facilitate robust economic exchanges, serving as critical nodes connecting Greek, Etruscan, and Phoenician merchants, thereby fostering an extensive cultural and economic network in the region.

Legacy of the Era

This dynamic colonization profoundly impacts Mediterranean Southwest Europe, spreading Hellenic culture, introducing sophisticated urban planning, and setting patterns for sustained Greek influence in Italy and Sicily. These early settlements are foundational to the later prominence of Magna Graecia, significantly shaping the cultural heritage and historical trajectory of the entire western Mediterranean.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (717–706 BCE):

Greek Expansion, Roman Political Transition, and Founding of New Colonies

Between 717 and 706 BCE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe experiences notable Greek colonial expansion in southern Italy, alongside significant political and cultural transitions in early Rome. These developments establish key foundations for the region’s future historical trajectory.

Foundation of Croton (ca. 710 BCE)

Around 710 BCE, Achaean Greeks, led by Myscellus from Rhypes in Achaea (northern Peloponnese), establish the colony of Croton (modern Crotone) in southern Italy. Croton rapidly becomes an important Greek cultural and economic hub, strengthening Greek presence in Magna Graecia and promoting trade, agriculture, and intellectual pursuits in the region.

Establishment of Taras by Spartans (706 BCE)

Greek colonists originating from Sparta and Laconia conquer the Messapian village of Taras (modern Taranto), located on a peninsula between the Mare Piccolo and the Mare Grande in Apulia, southeastern Italy. Traditionally dated to 706 BCE, this colonization reportedly arises from Spartan efforts to relocate and remove an unwanted social group. The strategic and fertile location of Taras quickly fosters its growth into one of Magna Graecia’s most influential city-states.

Political Transition in Early Rome: End of Romulus's Rule (717 BCE)

According to Roman legend, 717 BCE marks the end of Romulus’s reign, initiating a one-year interregnum during which power rotates among Roman senators. This period of political uncertainty reflects underlying tensions between the original Latin (Romulus-founded) and Sabine factions within Rome.

In 715 BCE, after considerable political negotiation, the Senate elects the Sabine Numa Pompilius as Rome's second king. His election symbolizes reconciliation between the two major factions. Numa promptly disbands Romulus’s personal guard, the "Celeres," signaling a departure from militaristic rule towards peaceful governance, religious innovation, and institutional reform.

Religious and Calendar Reforms under Numa Pompilius (713–712 BCE)

King Numa introduces crucial reforms aimed at stabilizing and culturally enriching early Roman society. In 713 BCE, he reforms the Roman calendar, aligning it more closely with agricultural cycles and religious observances. Subsequently, in 712 BCE, Numa establishes the influential position of Pontifex Maximus, the high priest heading the College of Pontiffs (Collegium Pontificum), setting a lasting framework for Rome’s religious hierarchy.

Legacy of the Era

The era 717–706 BCE witnesses the continued Greek colonization and consolidation in southern Italy, fostering cultural exchange and economic growth. Simultaneously, significant political transformations in Rome under Numa Pompilius lay foundational civic and religious structures, critically shaping the city-state’s emerging identity and governance model. These events collectively enhance the region’s development, paving the way for its vibrant classical future.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (621–487 BCE):

Rome's Foundation, Etruscan Conflicts, and Greek Cultural Flourishing

Between 621 and 487 BCE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe—covering Italy, southwestern Spain, Andorra, and the Western Mediterranean Islands (excluding Corsica)—undergoes significant political and cultural developments, including Rome's early foundation and shift from monarchy to republic, intensified interactions between Greek, Phoenician, and indigenous peoples, and the emergence of pivotal intellectual movements in southern Italy.

Rome: From Kingdom to Republic

The settlement of Rome, traditionally founded in 753 BCE, evolves significantly during this era. Initially governed by a monarchy composed of Latin, Sabine, and eventually Etruscan kings, Rome transitions in 509 BCE into an oligarchic republic after expelling its last king, Tarquinius Superbus. This political shift marks a crucial turning point, setting the foundations for Rome's future expansion and republican governance.

Greek Colonies and the Rise of Intellectualism

Greek cities in southern Italy, particularly Sybaris, reach their cultural and economic apex. Sybaris becomes renowned for its wealth and innovation, minting its own coinage and pioneering advancements such as one of the world's earliest street-lighting systems and concepts of intellectual property. This cultural milieu provides fertile ground for intellectual developments, notably in the city of Croton, where philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras establishes his influential philosophical and religious school. Pythagoreans explore mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, profoundly influencing subsequent Greek and Mediterranean thought.

Phoenician Settlements and Carthaginian Influence

Carthage, historically considered a Phoenician colony in North Africa, is now understood by recent research to have significant Greek cultural and possibly ethnic ties during this period. This nuanced identity places Carthage firmly within the broader sphere of Magna Graecia, integrating it culturally and economically into Greek-dominated networks across southern Italy, Sicily, and the wider Mediterranean.

Celtic Presence in Northern Italy

The era also sees the continued migration and settlement of Celtic peoples into northern Italy. According to classical sources like Livy, Gauls under leader Bellovesus cross the Alps around 600 BCE, occupying territories between modern Milan and Cremona, areas already inhabited by the Celtic Insubres. Archaeological and literary evidence supports the establishment of Celtic communities, marking significant cultural transformations and interactions with indigenous Italian peoples.

Artistic and Technological Achievements of the Etruscans

The Etruscans, continuing their influence from previous centuries, maintain significant political and cultural dominance in central and northern Italy. Their artisans produce sophisticated pottery, notably the black "bucchero" ware and elaborately decorated ceramics, many reflecting Greek stylistic influences. Etruscan cities engage in sustained conflicts with the emerging Roman Republic, shaping the geopolitical landscape of central Italy.

Legacy of the Age

The period from 621 to 487 BCE is transformative for Mediterranean Southwest Europe, defined by Rome's foundational shift to republican governance, Greek intellectual and cultural flourishing, significant Phoenician (and increasingly Hellenized Carthaginian) influence, and the ongoing integration of Celtic peoples in the north. These complex interactions lay the groundwork for subsequent historical developments, setting the stage for Rome's rise and broader Mediterranean integration.

Rome, a settlement around a ford on the river Tiber conventionally founded in 753 BCE, is ruled for the next two hundred and forty-four years by a monarchical system, initially with sovereigns of Latin and Sabine origin, later by Etruscan kings.

The tradition hands down seven kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus.

In 509 BCE, the Romans expel the last king from their city and establish an oligarchic republic.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (621–610 BCE):

Rome Under Tarquinius Priscus, Etruscan Influence, and Regional Expansion

Between 621 and 610 BCE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe experiences critical political developments, especially centered around Rome and the rising prominence of its Etruscan kings. The era witnesses the transformative reign of Tarquinius Priscus, Rome's fifth legendary king, whose ascension marks a significant shift towards Etruscan dominance in central Italy.

Ascension of Tarquinius Priscus and Etruscan Influence in Rome

Tarquinius Priscus, originally named Lucumo, arrives in Rome from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii. Though wealthy and influential, he is barred from political office in Tarquinii due to his partial Greek ancestry—his father being Demaratus the Corinthian, a noble immigrant from the Greek city of Corinth. Guided by his ambitious and prophetic wife, Tanaquil, Lucumo migrates to Rome to seek greater opportunities.

Upon entering Rome, an auspicious event occurs: an eagle lifts his cap from his head and swiftly returns it—a sign interpreted by Tanaquil as a divine omen of future greatness. Through his generosity, skill, and political acumen, Lucumo gains considerable respect, becoming known as Tarquinius Priscus. Noticing his abilities, King Ancus Marcius, Rome’s fourth king, adopts him as a son and appoints him guardian over his natural heirs.

Consolidation of Power and Military Success

Following the death of Ancus Marcius in 616 BCE, Tarquinius skillfully persuades the Roman People's Assembly to elect him king, bypassing Marcius' own sons. His reign immediately faces challenges, notably an aggressive attack from the neighboring Sabines. The ensuing conflict leads to intense street fighting within Rome itself, from which Tarquinius emerges victorious.

Capitalizing on his military success, Tarquinius expands Rome’s territory by subjugating several nearby Etruscan cities, including Corniculum, Firulea, Cameria, Crustumerium, Americola, Medullia, and Nomentum. This territorial consolidation under Tarquinius' rule significantly bolsters Rome’s power and paves the way for further Etruscan influence in Roman culture and governance.

Legacy of the Era

The era 621–610 BCE marks a pivotal chapter in Rome's early development. Tarquinius Priscus's reign symbolizes the ascendancy of Etruscan political and cultural influence, laying vital foundations for Rome’s subsequent growth into a dominant regional power. His successful defense against external threats, alongside strategic territorial expansion, reinforces Rome's prominence, setting critical precedents for Rome’s future political structures and ambitions in the Mediterranean region.

Tarquinius Priscus, according to Livy, had come from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii and was originally named Lucumo (it is now thought that lucumo was the name of an Etruscan political position).

Disgruntled with his opportunities in Etruria, he had migrated to Rome with his wife Tanaquil, at her suggestion.

He had been prohibited from obtaining political office in Tarquinii because of the ethnicity of his father, Demaratus the Corinthian, who had come from the Greek city of Corinth.

On his arrival in Rome in a chariot, an eagle took his cap, flew away and then returned it back upon his head.

Tanaquil, who is skilled in prophecy, had interpreted this as an omen of his future greatness.

Tarquinius Priscus has attained great respect Ii Rome through generosity and skill.

King Ancus Marcius, Rome’s fourth king according to tradition, himself had noticed him and adopted him as his son, also appointing him guardian of his other sons.

After the death of Ancus Marcius in 616, Tarquinius Priscus is able to persuade the People's Assembly that he should be elected king over Marcius' natural sons.

His military ability is immediately tested by an attack from the Sabines.

The attack is defeated after dangerous street fighting in Rome, and he then further subjugates the Etruscans.

Thus the cities Corniculum, Firulea, Cameria, Crustumerium, Americola, Medullia and Nomentum become Roman.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (597–586 BCE):

Expansion of Etruscan Influence and Roman Urban Development

Between 597 and 586 BCE, Mediterranean Southwest Europe experiences further Etruscan territorial expansion, continued Roman urban and cultural development, and an intensification of Etruscan influence across central Italy. This era marks significant progress in urbanization, infrastructure, and regional power dynamics.

Roman Developments under Tarquinius Priscus

According to tradition, Rome’s Etruscan King, Tarquinius Priscus, significantly shapes Rome’s urban landscape and cultural institutions during this period. Credited with subduing the Sabines and Latins, Tarquinius initiates major civic improvements, notably draining marshes, and constructing vital public landmarks, including the Circus Maximus, the Roman Forum, and the Capitoline temple. He also integrates substantial elements of Etruscan culture into Roman religion, governance, and social organization, laying enduring foundations for Rome’s later development.

Etruscan Territorial Expansion and Urban Peak

By the beginning of the sixth century BCE, the Etruscans have consolidated their control over significant portions of northern Italy, extending their influence to cities such as Fiesole (ancient Faesulae) and Volterra (ancient Volaterrae). At the same time, their territorial ambitions drive expansion southward into Campania, with Capua emerging as their principal foundation, alongside Nola. This southward push underscores Etruscan strategic objectives, challenging Greek dominance along Italy’s southern coast.

Etruscan urban civilization achieves its zenith during this era, distinguished by sophisticated cities, flourishing trade networks, and significant artistic achievements, notably evident in painted tombs and decorated ceramics.

Cultural and Economic Dynamics

Although the Etruscans dominate much of the Italian mainland, coastal regions remain largely under Greek influence, maintaining active trade and cultural interactions with Greek colonies. This coexistence creates a vibrant economic and cultural mosaic, characterized by competition and cooperation, facilitating broader Mediterranean exchanges.

Legacy of the Era

The years from 597 to 586 BCE represent a transformative period for Mediterranean Southwest Europe, characterized by Etruscan territorial consolidation, Roman urban advancements, and dynamic cultural exchanges between Etruscan and Greek populations. These developments establish enduring cultural, political, and economic frameworks that will shape the region for centuries to come.