Eastern West Indies (1744–1755 CE): Colonial Warfare and Shifts in Territorial Control

War of the Austrian Succession in the Caribbean

Between 1744 and 1755, the War of the Austrian Succession extended European conflicts into Caribbean colonial territories, intensifying military confrontations and strategic maneuvering. British forces from Saint Kitts invaded the French-controlled half of neighboring Saint Martin in 1744, occupying it until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.

French Invasion of Anguilla

In retaliation, a French fleet led by Commodore La Touché, consisting of two royal frigates, three privateers, and two Dutch support vessels, departed Martinique in late May 1745 to capture Anguilla. The British defenders, comprising around 150 militia and regular soldiers under Governor Arthur Hodge, fortified their position despite being outnumbered.

On May 21, the French forces, numbering 759 men, landed unexpectedly at Rendezvous Bay, achieving initial surprise. However, Governor Hodge strategically positioned British defenders along a narrow path, resulting in a highly effective ambush. British forces, led by Captain Richardson, inflicted heavy casualties, quickly breaking French ranks. The subsequent British counterattack turned the French retreat into a rout, forcing the attackers back to their ships amid chaos, heavy losses, and drownings.

The French fleet withdrew to Martinique following the battle, leaving behind at least 100 French casualties, including notable officers such as Commodore La Touché's second captain, the first lieutenant of another frigate, Captain Rolough of a privateer, and the son of the Governor of Saint Barthélemy. La Touché himself was wounded and later negotiated unsuccessfully for prisoner exchanges. The British, suffering only seven casualties, captured two French colors, firearms, grenades, and swivel guns, rewarding the enslaved Africans who aided in their defense efforts.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and Colonial Adjustments

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) provided minimal clarity regarding territorial claims in the Caribbean, leaving many disputes unresolved. However, the treaty established neutrality for Tobago, Grenada, Saint Vincent, and Dominica, allowing economic access without garrisons. Significantly, France gained definitive control of Saint Luciaas a colony.

Danish Administrative Changes

The Danish presence in the Caribbean, through the Danish West India and Guinea Company, continued its economic prosperity based primarily on the North Atlantic triangular trade. In 1754, administrative control of St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas transitioned directly to the Danish crown under King Frederick V, making them royal Danish colonies and marking the end of the Danish West India Company's governance.

Conclusion

The period from 1744 to 1755 in the Eastern West Indies was marked by intense colonial warfare and territorial readjustments. Battles like the decisive British victory on Anguilla demonstrated the volatility of colonial control, while diplomatic outcomes such as the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle reshaped political boundaries and colonial policies. Simultaneously, the Danish shift to direct royal governance underscored the evolving complexities and geopolitical significance of the Caribbean colonies.

Eastern West Indies (1756–1767 CE): War, Colonial Transitions, and Natural Disasters

Seven Years' War in the Caribbean

Between 1756 and 1767, the global Seven Years' War heavily impacted the Eastern West Indies, as European powers vied fiercely for dominance. British forces captured Grenada on March 4, 1762, under Commodore Swanton without resistance. Grenada was formally ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Paris (1763). A significant earthquake struck Grenada in 1766, followed by a suppressed rebellion among the enslaved population the following year.

Throughout the war, Britain secured control over several islands, notably St. Vincent, Grenada, and Tobago, reflecting significant territorial gains in the region.

British Victories and Strategic Shifts

The year 1759, often called Britain's Annus Mirabilis (year of wonders), saw sweeping British successes across global theaters. These included repelling French forces in India, decisive victories at the Battle of Minden in Europe, naval triumphs at the Battles of Lagos and Quiberon Bay, and significant North American conquests including Quebec City and Guadeloupe. British politician Horace Walpole famously remarked, "Our bells are worn threadbare with ringing for victories." British dominance established this year would notably elevate Britain’s global position at the expense of France.

Under the strategic direction of Secretary of State William Pitt the Elder, British forces carried out major offensives in the West Indies. In January 1759, British troops landed at Martinique but soon shifted focus to Guadeloupe due to stiff resistance. After intense fighting, disease, and leadership setbacks—including the death of commander Peregrine Hopson—Colonel John Barrington led British forces to victory, compelling the French governor Nadau du Treil to surrender on May 1, 1759. The costly victory, however, saw heavy casualties due to the tropical climate.

Following the war, Britain debated retaining either Canada or Guadeloupe. Britain ultimately prioritized Canada's strategic value, returning Guadeloupe to France under the Treaty of Paris (1763).

Jesuit Expulsion and Financial Crisis

In the French colony of Martinique, economic turmoil followed the bankruptcy of Jesuit missions. Father Antoine La Vallette, who borrowed heavily to expand plantation operations, faced ruin when ships laden with goods worth millions were captured during war. His creditors' legal action in 1760 led to a severe financial crisis, significantly contributing to the suppression of the Jesuit order across French territories.

Founding of Mayagüez

On September 18, 1760, settlers led by Faustino and Lorenzo Martínez de Matos, Juan de Silva, and Juan de Aponte established the town of Mayagüez near the Yagüez River on the island of Puerto Rico. Named Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria de Mayagüez, reflecting the Canarian heritage of its settlers, the town received rights of self-government in 1763.

Colonial Unrest and the Stamp Act

Political opposition to Britain's Stamp Act (1765) erupted notably in the Caribbean, especially in St. Kitts and Nevis, where violent riots targeted stamp distributors. Rioting successfully prevented stamp use in these islands. Although vocal political resistance appeared in other colonies, including Montserrat and Antigua, enforcement differed, with Barbados notably complying despite local opposition.

Port-au-Prince and Earthquakes

The city of Port-au-Prince, originally named L'Hôpital by the French in 1749, endured significant earthquakes in 1751 and again in 1770, the latter marking its establishment as the new capital of Saint-Domingue (modern Haiti).

Conclusion

The era 1756–1767 in the Eastern West Indies was characterized by intense warfare, natural disasters, and significant territorial and administrative shifts. The aftermath reshaped colonial dynamics, illustrating both the opportunities and challenges faced by European powers and local populations in a rapidly evolving geopolitical landscape.

Eastern West Indies (1768–1779 CE): Earthquakes, Warfare, and Revolutionary Tensions

Devastating Earthquakes and Their Aftermath

Between 1768 and 1779, severe natural disasters profoundly impacted the Eastern West Indies. A catastrophic earthquake struck Port-au-Prince on June 3, 1770, devastating the city and surrounding regions, including Lake Miragoâne and Petit-Goâve. The quake caused extensive soil liquefaction in the Plain of the Cul-de-Sac, leveling buildings and sinking the village of Croix des Bouquets below sea level. Approximately 200 people died in Port-au-Prince alone, with severe casualties elsewhere. The earthquake triggered a tsunami affecting the Gulf of Gonâve.

The quake's aftermath saw thousands of enslaved individuals fleeing in chaos, severely disrupting the local economy. Approximately 15,000 enslaved people died from subsequent famine, while another 15,000 succumbed to gastrointestinal anthrax contracted from tainted meat sold by Spanish traders.

Economic and Strategic Rivalries

In 1777, French botanist Nicolas-Joseph Thiéry de Menonville attempted to smuggle valuable cochineal insects from New Spain to Saint-Domingue. Although initially successful, this attempt ultimately failed, leaving Spain's monopoly on this lucrative dyestuff intact.

Grenada: Conflict and Reconstruction

The principal town of Grenada, St. George, faced destructive fires in 1771 and again in 1775, prompting reconstruction efforts in stone and brick. During the American War of Independence, French forces under Comte d'Estaing recaptured Grenada between July 2-4, 1779, with British naval forces defeated in the Battle of Grenada on July 6, 1779.

Sint Eustatius and the American Revolution

The small Dutch island of Sint Eustatius became pivotal during the American Revolutionary War. In 1776, it was the first foreign power to officially acknowledge American independence by saluting the brig Andrew Doria. Due to British blockades, Sint Eustatius became a crucial supply hub for the American forces, facilitated by Dutch, British colonial, and Jewish merchant networks.

French and British Conflicts

French and British forces clashed repeatedly throughout the Caribbean. The French captured Dominica in September 1778, led by Governor-General François Claude Amour, Marquis de Bouillé, capitalizing on weak British defenses. News of Dominica’s fall shocked Britain, leading to severe criticism of Admiral Samuel Barrington for inadequate naval defenses.

In response, Admiral William Hotham and Admiral Barrington launched an assault on French-held St. Lucia in December 1778, securing it as a strategic position. Reinforcements arrived for both sides in early 1779, shifting power dynamics. Admiral John Byron reinforced the British but departed in June 1779 to protect merchant convoys, leaving Admiral d'Estaing free to act.

D'Estaing and Bouillé captured Saint Vincent on June 18, 1779, and subsequently targeted Grenada, capturing it after fierce fighting on July 4, 1779.

Severe Weather Events

A devastating hurricane hit Guadeloupe on September 6, 1776, resulting in over 6,000 fatalities, highlighting the ongoing vulnerability of Caribbean islands to extreme weather events.

Conclusion

The period 1768–1779 witnessed significant upheaval in the Eastern West Indies, shaped by destructive earthquakes, the tumult of the American Revolutionary War, and severe weather disasters. The era demonstrated both the volatility and strategic significance of these colonial territories, setting the stage for continued geopolitical complexities.

The West Indies (1828–1971 CE)

Emancipation, Empire, and the Quest for Unity

Geography & Environmental Context

The West Indies comprises three fixed subregions:

• Northern West Indies — Bermuda, the Turks and Caicos, northern Hispaniola, and the Outer Bahamas(Grand Bahama, Abaco, Eleuthera, Cat Island, San Salvador, Long Island, Crooked Island, Mayaguana, Little Inagua, and eastern Great Inagua). Anchors include the Bahama Banks, Bermuda’s naval dockyards, the Caicos salt pans, and the northern valleys of Hispaniola.

• Eastern West Indies — Trinidad, Saint Lucia, Barbados, most of Haiti and the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Anchors include the Kingston–San Juan sea lanes, the Hispaniolan cordilleras, the Caroni and Naparima plains of Trinidad, and the Windward–Leeward channels that structured trade, migration, and naval passage.

• Western West Indies — Cuba, Jamaica, the Cayman Islands, and the Inner Bahamas (Andros, New Providence, Great Exuma, and neighboring islands). Anchors include Havana Harbor, the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, the Andros Barrier Reef, and the Cayman Trench.

Fertile volcanic soils, limestone valleys, and strategic sea lanes made these islands central to Atlantic commerce and imperial rivalry from the age of sugar through decolonization.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The tropical climate brought seasonal hurricanes and variable rainfall. Deforestation and plantation monoculture caused erosion and flooding, while earthquakes periodically struck Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. By the 20th century, hurricanes became a recurring test of infrastructure and governance. Marine resources, from coral reefs to fisheries, sustained local economies even as tourism and oil refining reshaped coasts.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Plantation economies dominated the 19th century, producing sugar, coffee, cocoa, and bananas under systems of wage labor that replaced slavery after emancipation (1834–38 in the British colonies, 1848 in the French, 1863 in the Dutch, 1886 in Cuba, and 1898 in Puerto Rico).

• Peasant freeholds emerged across Jamaica, Barbados, and Trinidad, where former slaves cultivated provisions and cash crops. In Hispaniola, smallholder coffee and cacao farming thrived.

• Urban growth accelerated: Havana, San Juan, Port of Spain, and Kingston became centers of trade, education, and politics.

• Migration shaped the region: Indian indentured laborers arrived in Trinidad, Guyana, and Saint Lucia after 1838; inter-island migration filled estates and urban jobs; transatlantic migration linked the islands to New York and London.

Technology & Material Culture

Steamships, railways, and telegraphs integrated the Caribbean into global networks by the late 19th century. Sugar mills, rum distilleries, and port warehouses dominated industrial landscapes. Oil refining began in Trinidad (early 20th century) and later in Curaçao and Aruba. After WWII, airports, cruise terminals, and tourism infrastructure redefined economies. Architecture ranged from Georgian and Spanish colonial to modernist hotels and government buildings, while vernacular crafts—baskets, pottery, steelpan drums, and carnival costumes—remained cultural hallmarks.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Sea lanes: The Windward Passage, Mona Passage, and Florida Straits were arteries for trade, migration, and naval power.

• Diaspora routes: Caribbean laborers moved to Panama for canal construction, to Cuba and the U.S. for seasonal harvests, and to Britain after WWII (the “Windrush Generation,” 1948 onward).

• Regional travel: Steamers and later airlines linked colonial capitals—Kingston, Port of Spain, Havana, San Juan, and Bridgetown—into circuits of commerce, religion, and politics.

• Military and naval routes: U.S. expansion after 1898 established bases in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Bermuda; naval stations in the Bahamas and British bases in Bermuda remained strategic through WWII and the Cold War.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

Caribbean identity fused African, European, and Asian elements.

• Religion: Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Islam, and Afro-syncretic faiths such as Obeah, Vodou, and Orisha coexisted and intertwined.

• Language and literature: Creoles flourished beside English, Spanish, and French; writers such as Aimé Césaire, Claude McKay, and Derek Walcott articulated decolonizing consciousness.

• Music: Calypso, mento, ska, steelband, salsa, and reggae emerged from island streets and festivals, broadcasting Caribbean rhythms worldwide.

• National festivals: Carnival, Junkanoo, and independence parades turned the streets into theaters of memory and resistance.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Smallholders diversified crops and maintained intercropping traditions to buffer hurricanes and price shocks. Coastal communities rebuilt with coral stone and timber after storms. Water catchment, terrace farming, and fishing cooperatives sustained rural livelihoods. Postwar conservation and marine parks (e.g., in the Bahamas and Virgin Islands) began to protect reefs and mangroves as tourism expanded.

Political & Military Shocks

• Emancipation and post-slavery transitions: Freed populations negotiated wages and land rights amid planter resistance.

• Imperial changeovers: The Spanish–American War (1898) transferred Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United States; the U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark (1917).

• Nationalism and federation: The early 20th century saw labor uprisings and the rise of Caribbean socialism—Butler, Bustamante, Manley, Williams, and Castro among key figures. The West Indies Federation (1958–62) sought unity but collapsed amid national rivalries.

• Independence waves:

  • Cuba (1902, revolution 1959), Dominican Republic (sovereignty restored 1844, renewed independence 1865), Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago (1962), Barbados (1966), Bahamas (1973, beyond our span).

  • U.S. territories—Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Guam—retained commonwealth or dependency status.

• Cold War and revolutions: The Cuban Revolution (1959) redefined regional politics; U.S. interventions in the Dominican Republic (1965) and elsewhere revealed hemispheric tensions.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, the West Indies transitioned from plantation colonies to a constellation of independent and semi-autonomous nations. Slavery’s abolition gave rise to peasantries, diasporas, and new cultural syntheses; oil and tourism replaced sugar as economic engines. The region’s music, literature, and politics voiced both emancipation and aspiration. By 1971, the Caribbean stood as a microcosm of decolonization—its seas crossed by cruise ships and memory, its islands bound by shared histories of survival, creativity, and unbroken connection to the wider Atlantic world.

Eastern West Indies (1828–1971 CE): Emancipation, Nation-Making, and New Economies

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of Eastern West Indies includes Trinidad, Saint Lucia, Barbados, most of Haiti, most of the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Anchors include Kingston-to-San Juan sea lanes, the Hispaniolan cordilleras, the Caroni and Naparima plains (Trinidad), and the Windward–Leeward channels that structured trade, migration, and navies.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

Recurring major hurricanes (e.g., 1899 in Puerto Rico; 1930 in the Dominican Republic; 1955/1963 across the arc) and periodic droughts tested smallholders and towns. Deforestation for cane and charcoal reduced watershed resilience; mid-20th-century reforestation and conservation began piecemeal.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Haiti: Independent since 1804; rural peasantry consolidated smallholdings (lakou systems) in coffee/food crops. Political instability, debt, and later the U.S. occupation (1915–1934) constrained growth.

• Dominican Republic: Independence from Haiti in 1844; annexation to Spain (1861–1865) and restoration followed. Coffee, cacao, tobacco, and cattle underpinned regional economies; the U.S. occupation (1916–1924) reshaped customs and finance.

• Puerto Rico: Spanish colony until 1898, then under U.S. sovereignty; sugar corporations expanded, later giving way to industrialization and migration under Operation Bootstrap (1947–1950s).

• Barbados & Saint Lucia: Emancipation (1834–1838) reconfigured labor; sharecropping and peasantries grew alongside estates. 20th-century diversification moved toward tourism and services; Barbados achieved independence (1966).

• Trinidad: Emancipation (1834–1838); post-emancipation estates imported indentured labor (primarily from India, from 1845). Oil and asphalt (Pitch Lake) shifted the economy; independence (1962) arrived mid-century.

• Virgin Islands: The Danish West Indies (St. Thomas, St. John, St. Croix) abolished slavery in 1848; sold to the United States (1917) as the U.S. Virgin Islands. British Virgin Islands remained a small, agrarian colony moving toward financial/tourism niches.

Technology & Material Culture

Railways, centrals, and company towns modernized cane zones; oil refineries and ports transformed Trinidad. Concrete sea defenses, lighthouses, and breakwaters hardened coasts. Urban fabrics—Havana-style arcades in San Juan’s old quarter, gingerbread houses in Cap-Haïtien, Georgian stone in Bridgetown, cast-iron galleries in Castries—signaled layered colonial inheritances. Afro-Indo-Creole cuisines, steelpan (Trinidad), and carnival costuming flourished.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Steamship and later air routes knit Port of Spain, Bridgetown, San Juan, and St. Thomas to New York, London, and Caracas.

• Labor migrations: post-1838 indenture to Trinidad; 20th-century movements from Barbados and St. Lucia to Panama, Britain’s Windrush era, and the U.S. mainland; circular migration within Hispaniola.

• Naval corridors shifted with U.S. ascendancy (Guantánamo nearby; U.S. bases in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands).

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Afro-Caribbean faiths—vodou (Haiti), orisha/Ifá strands in Trinidad, Shango and Spiritual Baptist practices—coexisted with Catholic and Protestant establishments.

• Mass festivals—Carnival (Trinidad/Barbados), Jounen Kwéyòl strands in Saint Lucia, Fête Dieu processions—encoded memory and resilience.

• Literary and musical renaissances (calypso, son, merengue, steelpan) articulated post-emancipation identities; nationalist symbols crystallized in independence movements.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Peasant mosaics (cacao/coffee/intercropping) stabilized hillsides; terrace and contour farming limited erosion. Coastal towns rebuilt repeatedly after cyclones with concrete and hurricane-strapped roofs. Oil and tourism diversified beyond sugar; cooperative credit, diaspora remittances, and mutual-aid lodges buffered shocks.

Transition

By 1971 CE, the Eastern West Indies spanned independent states (Trinidad and Barbados), U.S. territories (Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands), British colonies on paths toward autonomy (Saint Lucia, British Virgin Islands), and Hispaniolan republics wrestling with debt, dictatorship, and development. Across the arc, the legacies of slavery, emancipation, indenture, and revolution had yielded a distinctly Caribbean modernity—maritime, migratory, and culturally incandescent.

The local Caribbean assemblies are encouraged to import nominally free laborers from India, China, and Africa under contracts of indenture to mitigate labor difficulties here.

Apart from the condition that they have a legally defined term of service and are guaranteed a set wage, the Asian indentured laborers are treated like the African slaves they partially replace in the fields and factories.

Between 1838 and 1917, nearly five hundred thousand East Indians (from British India) will come to work on the British West Indian sugar plantations, the majority going to the new sugar producers with fertile lands.

Trinidad imports one hundred and forty-five thousand; Jamaica, twenty-one thousand five hundred; Grenada, two thousand five hundred and seventy; St. Vincent, eighteen hundred and twenty; and St. Lucia, fifteen hundred and fifty.

Eastern West Indies (1840–1851 CE): Indentured Labor, Political Instability, and Dominican Independence

Indentured Labor and Post-Emancipation Economy

Following emancipation, the Eastern West Indies faced profound labor shortages. To sustain sugar production, British Caribbean assemblies began importing indentured laborers from India, China, and Africa, who, though legally free and contracted for fixed terms, often faced conditions reminiscent of slavery. Between 1838 and 1917, nearly 500,000 East Indians migrated to the British West Indies, notably 145,000 to Trinidad, 21,500 to Jamaica, and smaller numbers to Grenada, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia. Despite nominal freedoms, their harsh living conditions and limited rights highlighted continuing economic exploitation.

Political Turmoil in Haiti

In 1843, Charles Rivière-Hérard overthrew President Jean-Pierre Boyer, marking the start of prolonged instability. Boyer's presidency, notable for its length and internal reunification, had also deepened racial and class divisions, ultimately prompting his downfall. Rivière-Hérard's short-lived rule (1843–1844) succumbed rapidly to internal and external pressures, including failed military campaigns and rural uprisings by piquets led by Louis Jean-Jacques Acaau, emphasizing rural dissatisfaction.

The period that followed was marked by swift political turnovers orchestrated by mulatto elites, notably the Ardouin brothers, who manipulated successive black presidents like Philippe Guerrier (1844–1845), Jean-Louis Pierrot (1845–1846), and Jean-Baptiste Riché (1846–1847). In 1847, they installed Faustin Soulouque, who quickly turned against his backers, establishing a brutal dictatorship maintained through secret police (zinglins) and terror tactics.

Haitian Economic Decline and Social Conditions

Economic stagnation became pervasive as agricultural revenues declined, exacerbated by chronic defaults on payments owed to France. Increasingly desperate Haitian presidents sought foreign loans and relied on German merchant-funded coups led by mercenary cacos. By mid-century, Haiti's poverty deepened drastically, with annual per capita income averaging only US$20 and over 90% illiteracy, compounded by rampant tropical diseases.

Dominican Independence and Early Governance

Haiti’s internal chaos provided the opportunity for Dominican independence. On February 27, 1844, Dominican rebels led by nationalists including Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, Ramon Mella, and inspired by Juan Pablo Duarte, captured the Ozama fortress, marking Dominican Independence Day. Duarte’s return from exile on March 14 briefly inspired optimism, but internal rivalries quickly emerged.

Dominican politics became dominated by strongmen, particularly Pedro Santana Familias and Buenaventura Báez Méndez. Santana, leveraging his military influence, became the dominant figure, sidelining liberal nationalists like Duarte. The 1844 Dominican Constitution, though remarkably liberal, was undermined by Santana's insistence on extraordinary powers, leading to authoritarian governance and violent political cycles.

International Rivalries and Diplomatic Maneuvering

Dominican leaders actively sought foreign protection to safeguard independence from Haitian aggression. Both Santana and Báez approached powers such as France, the United States, and Britain. Báez strongly favored French intervention, while Britain, keen to preserve strategic commercial interests, brokered a treaty between Haiti and the Dominican Republic in 1851, further involving itself in regional politics.

Key Historical Events

• Arrival of indentured laborers (1838–1917), significantly impacting the post-slavery economy.

• Overthrow of Jean-Pierre Boyer (1843) and the subsequent political turmoil.

• Dominican independence declared (February 27, 1844) under leadership figures such as Juan Pablo Duarte, Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, and Ramon Mella.

• Pedro Santana’s authoritarian rule and manipulation of constitutional powers.

• Buenaventura Báez’s diplomatic overtures toward foreign powers, particularly France and Britain.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period 1840–1851 solidified complex economic, political, and social transformations in the Eastern West Indies. Indentured labor reshaped demographic and social dynamics, while Haiti and the Dominican Republic experienced intense political instability marked by violent power struggles. Dominican independence and subsequent diplomatic maneuverings underscored ongoing geopolitical significance, highlighting persistent vulnerabilities and external dependencies in Caribbean politics.

One hundred and forty-four thousand East Indian laborers will go to Trinidad and thirty-nine thousand will to Jamaica between the years 1850 to 1880.

The first group—Barbados, the Bahamas, the Leeward Islands, and Jamaica—had developed during the early attempts to found colonies.

Like the mainland North American colonies (and Bermuda), these territories have representative assemblies based on the bicameral system of the mother country.

Each colony has a governor who represents the monarch, an appointed upper house, and an elected lower house.

The electoral franchise, however, is extremely restricted, being vested in a few wealthy male property holders.

Power is divided between the governor, who executes the laws, and the assembly, which makes them.

However, the assembly retains the right to pass all money bills—including the pay for the governor—and so uses this right to obstruct legislation or simply to control new officials.

These older colonies also have an effective system of local government based on parish vestries.

The vestries are elected annually by the freeholders and meet frequently to levy local revenues for the maintenance of the poor, the support of the clergy, the construction of roads, and other local business, such as the licensing of teachers.