Arabic-speaking people have spread Islam into the northern Sahara by 750.

The earliest author to mention Ghana is the Persian astronomer Ibrahim al-Fazari who, writing at the end of the eighth century, refers to "the territory of Ghana, the land of gold".

The Ghana Empire lies in the Sahel region to the north of the West African gold fields and is able to profit from controlling the trans-Saharan gold trade.

The early history of Ghana is unknown but there is evidence that North Africa had began importing gold from West African before the Arab conquest in the middle of the seventh century.

Most of our information about the economy of Ghana comes from merchants, and therefore we know more about the commercial aspects of its economy, and less about the way in which the rulers and nobles may have obtained agricultural products through tribute or taxation.

The empire becomes wealthy because of their trading.

They have an abundant amount of gold and salt.

Al-Bakri noted that merchants had to pay a one gold dinar tax on imports of salt, and two on exports of salt.

Other products paid fixed dues, al-Bakri mentioned both copper and "other goods."

Imports probably include products such as textiles, ornaments and other materials.

Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in old Morocco may also have their origins in the empire.

The main center of trade is Koumbi Saleh.

The king claims as his own all nuggets of gold, and allows other people to have only gold dust.

In addition to the exerted influence of the king onto local regions, tribute is also received from various tributary states and chiefdoms to the empire's periphery.

The introduction of the camel had played a key role in Soninke success as well, allowing products and goods to be transported much more efficiently across the Sahara.

These contributing factors will all help the empire remain powerful for some time, providing a rich and stable economy that is to last over several centuries.

The empire is also known to be a major education hub.

Most ethnic groups constituting the modern Ghanaian population had settled in their present locations by the end of the sixteenth century.

Archaeological remains found in the coastal zone indicate that the area has been inhabited since the early Bronze Age (circa 4000 BCE), but these societies, based on fishing in the extensive lagoons and rivers, left few traces.

Archaeological work also suggests that central Ghana north of the forest zone is inhabited as early as three thousand to four thousand years ago.

Oral history and other sources suggest that the ancestors of some of Ghana's residents entered this area at least as early as the tenth century CE and that migration from the north and east continued thereafter.

These migrations result in part from the formation and disintegration of a series of large states in the western Sudan (the region north of modern Ghana drained by the Niger River).

Prominent among these Sudanic states is the Soninke kingdom of Ghana.

Strictly speaking, ghana is the title of the king, but the Arabs, who leave records of the kingdom, apply the term to the king, the capital, and the state.

The ninth-century Arab writer, Al Yaqubi, describes ancient Ghana as one of the three most organized states in the region (the others being Gao and Kanem in the central Sudan).

Its rulers are renowned for their wealth in gold, the opulence of their courts, and their warrior-hunting skills.

They are also masters of the trade in gold, which draws North African merchants to the western Sudan.

The military achievements of these and later western Sudanic rulers and their control over the region's gold mines constitute the nexus of their historical relations with merchants and rulers of North Africa and the Mediterranean.

West Africa (820 – 963 CE): Ghana’s Rise, Sahel–Forest Gateways, and River Towns

Geographic and Environmental Context

West Africa includes Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and western–central Nigeria (Hausaland).

• Anchors: the Senegal–Gambia valleys, the Niger Bend and Inland Delta, the Volta and Benue corridors, and forest margins from Guinea to Ghana–Benin.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The Medieval Warm Period brought generally favorable rains to the Sahel and Sudan belts.

• Flood-recession farming in the Inland Niger Delta and lower Senegal supported cereals, fish, and pastures.

Societies and Political Developments

• Ghana (Wagadu) consolidated between the Senegal and upper Niger, taxing caravans at nodes around Koumbi Saleh.

• Takrur formed in the lower Senegal valley as an early riverine state.

• Towns at Gao on the Niger Bend grew into a commercial polity (Songhay ancestors).

• Forest–savanna margins (Mande and early Akan ancestors) supplied gold, kola, and ivory to Sahelian markets.

• In Hausaland (northwest–central Nigeria), early urban kernels (e.g., Kano, Katsina) emerged as walled towns within a mosaic of farming chieftaincies.

Economy and Trade

• Trans-Saharan caravans linked Ghana to Sijilmassa and Awdaghust (gold for salt, copper, cloth).

• Savanna agriculture (millet, sorghum) and floodplain gardens fueled surplus; cattle herds grazed Sahel pastures.

• Forest exports—gold (Bambuk, Buré), kola, ivory—moved through Mande brokers northward.

Subsistence and Technology

• Dryland grains with iron hoes and ard ploughs; river fisheries and flood-recession plots in the Inland Delta.

• Iron smelting furnished tools and weapons; donkeys and oxen moved farm goods; camels dominated the desert legs.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Sahara–Sahel axes: Sijilmassa ⇄ Awdaghust ⇄ Ghana; Air–Azawad ⇄ Gao.

• Niger River tied Gao to Inland Delta fisheries and pasture markets; Senegal River sustained Takrur.

Belief and Symbolism

• Indigenous religions centered on earth shrines, ancestor veneration, and river spirits.

• Early Islamic presence (merchants, scholars) clustered in caravan towns and separate quarters, without displacing local cults.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Ecological complementarity—Sahel grains, river fish, forest gold and kola—buffered shocks.

• Toll-taking states (Ghana, Takrur) maintained caravan security; when one route faltered, traffic shifted to alternatives.

Long-Term Significance

By 963, West Africa was a Sahelian–riverine commonwealth: Ghana dominated gold–salt corridors; Gao and Takrur anchored the Niger and Senegal; forest margins fed northbound trade that would power later state formation.

West Africa (964 – 1107 CE): Ghana’s Zenith, Sahelian Towns, and Forest Gateways

Geographic and Environmental Context

West Africa includes Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria.

• The Sahelian belt (Senegal–Niger valleys) anchored kingdoms like Ghana (Wagadu) and Takrur.

• The Niger Bend and inner Niger delta supported riverine farming, fishing, and trade, with towns such as Gao rising to prominence.

• The forest–savanna frontiers of modern Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana served as entry points for gold, kola, and ivory into Sahelian networks.

• In the east, Hausaland (northern Nigeria) consolidated into a mosaic of town-based polities linked to desert and savanna routes.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The Medieval Warm Period (c. 950–1250) brought more stable rainfall to the Sahel, supporting millet, sorghum, and livestock across wide zones.

• Flood-recession agriculture in the inner Niger delta flourished, producing cereals, vegetables, and fish surpluses.

• Periodic dry years still occurred, but ecological diversity across Sahel, savanna, and forest buffered subsistence.

Societies and Political Developments

• Ghana (Wagadu):

  • Reached its peak by the late 10th–11th centuries, ruling from Koumbi Saleh, with dual cities for indigenous and Muslim merchant populations.

  • Controlled the Awdaghust–Sijilmāsa caravan axis, extracting tribute and tolls on gold, salt, copper, and slaves.

  • Kings of Ghana patronized indigenous rituals but hosted Muslim scholars and traders, balancing dual authority.

• Takrur (Senegal valley):

  • Consolidated as a kingdom rivaling Ghana; rulers adopted Islam earlier than Ghana’s kings, fostering closer ties with North African merchants.

• Gao (Songhay ancestors):

  • Emerged as a rival Sahelian power on the eastern Niger; by the 11th century, Gao was a recognized kingdom with a Muslim ruling elite, noted in Arabic sources.

• Forest–savanna margins:

  • Mande-speaking traders and Akan ancestors channeled gold (Bambuk, Bure), kola nuts, and ivory northward.

  • Lineages in Upper Guinea and the Gold Coast consolidated towns, creating durable supply networks.

• Hausaland:

  • Urban communities at Kano, Katsina, Zaria grew into organized towns, each with ruling dynasties and fortified walls.

  • Early Hausa polities integrated farming, craft, and caravan trade.

• Benin region:

  • Edo-speaking communities clustered around chiefs; early forms of the Benin polity emerged in the 11th century.

Economy and Trade

• Gold–salt trade: Ghana mediated the movement of gold from Bambuk/Buré to Sijilmāsa and beyond, while Saharan salt moved south.

• Copper and iron: copper from Takedda and Air supplied smiths; local ironworking thrived in savanna belts.

• Agriculture: millet and sorghum in Sahel; African rice in Upper Guinea; yams and oil palm in forest margins.

• Livestock: cattle, sheep, and goats grazed in the Sahel; horses (imported from the Maghreb) became symbols of elite power.

• Slaves: captured in frontier wars, traded north across the Sahara, and incorporated into Sahelian households.

• Craft production: raffia cloth, iron tools, wooden sculptures, and leatherwork enriched markets.

Subsistence and Technology

• Farming systems: intensive irrigation and flood-recession farming in Senegal and Niger valleys.

• Pastoralism: transhumant cycles linked Sahel pastures with riverside gardens.

• Iron technology: bloomery furnaces supplied hoes, axes, spearheads, and ornaments.

• River transport: dugout canoes on the Senegal, Gambia, and Niger moved goods and people.

• Caravan technology: camels carried gold, salt, ivory, and textiles across the Sahara in organized trains.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Awdaghust ⇄ Sijilmāsa ⇄ Koumbi Saleh: Ghana’s critical trans-Saharan axis.

• Niger Bend ⇄ Gao ⇄ Air: eastern routes carrying copper, salt, and slaves.

• Senegal River ⇄ Takrur ⇄ Atlantic littoral: opening Sahelian trade toward the ocean, centuries before European contact.

• Forest tracks ⇄ Sahel towns: Mande and Akan traders linked forest resources to Sahel markets.

• Hausaland ⇄ Air ⇄ Sahara: Hausa towns connected to Saharan gateways for copper and textiles.

Belief and Symbolism

• Indigenous religions: earth shrines, ancestral spirits, and sacred groves legitimized land and kingship.

• Islam:

  • Spread among merchants, scholars, and some rulers (notably Takrur and Gao).

  • Muslim quarters in Ghana’s Koumbi Saleh flourished, while Ghana’s kings retained indigenous rituals.

• Symbolic economy: horses, gold ornaments, and elaborate burials marked elite power.

• Festivals synchronized agricultural and trading calendars, reinforcing community bonds.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Ecological complementarity: gold from forests, grain from Sahel, salt from Sahara ensured resilience.

• Political dualism: rulers balanced indigenous ritual authority with Muslim merchant literacy and diplomacy.

• Caravan redundancy: shifting routes ensured continuity even when climate or politics disrupted one path.

• Lineage networks: in forest and savanna, kin-based alliances stabilized trade and subsistence.

Long-Term Significance

By 1107 CE, West Africa stood at a high point of Sahelian power and trans-Saharan integration:

• Ghana (Wagadu) controlled the gold–salt axis at its zenith.

• Takrur rose in the Senegal valley as an Islamic kingdom.

• Gao emerged as a Muslim-led Sahelian power.

• Forest frontiers provided gold, kola, and ivory through Mande traders.

• Hausaland and Benin laid the foundations of durable polities.

This era established West Africa as a pivot of Afro-Eurasian trade, blending indigenous traditions with the growing influence of Islam, and setting the stage for the decline of Ghana and the rise of Mali in the 13th century.

Islamic geographers from Andalusia visit West African states like the Ghana Empire, known to its own citizens (Soninke) as Wagadou but known in Europe and Arabia by the title of its ruler (the Ghana, meaning "Warrior King").

As Islam has grown throughout the region, the Ghanas have permitted the religion, but have not converted to it, unlike …

Ghana succumbed to attacks by its neighbors in the eleventh century, but its name and reputation endured.

In 1957 when the leaders of the former British colony of the Gold Coast seek an appropriate name for their newly independent state—the first black African nation to gain its independence from colonial rule—they will name their new country after ancient Ghana.

The choice is more than merely symbolic because modern Ghana, like its namesake, is equally famed for its wealth and trade in gold.

Although none of the states of the western Sudan control territories in the area that is modern Ghana, several small kingdoms that later develop in the north of the country are ruled by nobles believed to have immigrated from that region.

The trans-Saharan trade that contributes to the expansion of kingdoms in the western Sudan also leads to the development of contacts with regions in northern modern Ghana and in the forest to the south.

By the thirteenth century, for example, the town of Djenné in the empire of Mali has established commercial connections with the ethnic groups in the savanna-woodland areas of the northern two-thirds of the Volta Basin in modern Ghana.

Djenné is also the headquarters of the Dyula, Muslim traders who deal with the ancestors of the Akan-speaking peoples who occupy most of the southern half of the country.

West Africa (1108 – 1251 CE): Ghana’s Decline, Sundiata’s Revolution, and Benin’s Consolidation

Geographic and Environmental Context

West Africa includes Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria.

• The Sahelian belt (Senegal–Niger valleys) anchored kingdoms like Ghana (Wagadu) and Takrur.

• The Niger Bend and inner Niger delta supported riverine farming, fishing, and trade, with towns such as Gao rising to prominence.

• The forest–savanna frontiers of modern Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana served as entry points for gold, kola, and ivory into Sahelian networks.

• In the east, Hausaland (northern Nigeria) consolidated into a mosaic of town-based polities linked to desert and savanna routes.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Generally favorable rains, with localized dry spells.

• Flood-recession agriculture in the Inland Delta remained productive.

Societies and Political Developments

• Ghana (Wagadu) declined under internal fissures, shifting trade, and pressure from nomads and rival states.

• In the upper Niger, Sundiata Keita forged the Mali polity (crowned after the Battle of Kirina, c. 1235), uniting Mande chiefdoms and seizing the goldfields’ arteries.

• Gao persisted as a Songhay kingdom; Takrur remained an Islamic river state.

• Hausaland: city-states expanded walls, markets, and dynastic courts.

• Benin region: Ogiso-era town clusters consolidated toward the early Oba monarchy.

Economy and Trade

• Mali’s control of Bambuk–Buré gold routes shifted the balance from Ghana; salt from Taghaza/ Taoudenni supplied the Sahel.

• Caravans: copper from Takedda, textiles from Ghadames–Ghat, and horses from the Maghreb flowed south; gold, slaves, ivory, and kola moved north.

• Agriculture: Sahel grains; Inland Delta rice and fish; forest yams and oil palm.

Subsistence and Technology

• Irrigation and floodplain management in Inland Delta; iron hoes and sickles increased yields.

• Camel logistics refined; caravanserais multiplied along trunk routes.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Upper Niger trunk (Niani–Kangaba) under Mali;

• Gao–Air–Takedda copper axis;

• Senegal–Takrur routes to the Atlantic edge;

• Hausa corridors through Kano and Katsina toward the Sahara.

Belief and Symbolism

• Islamic courts in Mali, Gao, Takrur sponsored mosques and jurists; indigenous rites persisted in rural hinterlands.

• Griots preserved royal epics (e.g., Sundiata), legitimating rule.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Political succession from Ghana to Mali preserved caravan security.

• Ecological spread—Sahel grains + floodplain rice + forest kola—hedged climate risk.

Long-Term Significance

By 1251, Mali had supplanted Ghana; Gao, Takrur, Hausa, and Benin matured—setting up a 14th-century boom in gold, cities, and Islamic learning.

West Africa (1252 – 1395 CE): Mali’s Gold Age, Songhay’s Ascent, and Hausa–Benin City Networks

Geographic and Environmental Context

West Africa includes Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria.

• The Sahelian belt (Senegal–Niger valleys) anchored kingdoms like Ghana (Wagadu) and Takrur.

• The Niger Bend and inner Niger delta supported riverine farming, fishing, and trade, with towns such as Gao rising to prominence.

• The forest–savanna frontiers of modern Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana served as entry points for gold, kola, and ivory into Sahelian networks.

• In the east, Hausaland (northern Nigeria) consolidated into a mosaic of town-based polities linked to desert and savanna routes.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The onset of the Little Ice Age (~1300) introduced greater rainfall variability in the Sahel; core river basins and floodplains remained productive.

• Caravan viability continued with route adjustments to oasis conditions.

Societies and Political Developments

• Mali Empire reached its zenith: Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337) centralized power, reformed finances, and performed the celebrated hajj (1324–1325), projecting Malian prestige across the Islamic world; Mansa Sulayman (r. 1341–1360) maintained stability.

• Songhay at Gao expanded autonomy under the Sonni dynasty (pre-Sunni Ali), positioning for later takeover of the Niger Bend.

• Hausa city-states (e.g., Kano, Katsina, Zaria) entrenched urban courts, craft guilds, and caravan diplomacy.

• Jolof confederation rose in Senegambia (mid-14th c.), shaping Atlantic-edge politics.

• Benin Kingdom consolidated the Oba monarchy (late 13th–14th c.), strengthening city walls, palace rituals, and regional trade.

Economy and Trade

• Gold from Bambuk–Buré and Wangara networks sustained Mali’s coin and credit circuits;

• Salt from Taghaza fed the Sahel; copper from Takedda supplied smiths; horses from the Maghreb armed elites.

• Agriculture: Sahel grains; Inland Delta rice/fish; forest kola, pepper, and palm products.

• Urban craft: cloth weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, and manuscript culture in Sahelian towns.

Subsistence and Technology

• Floodplain irrigation and rice paddies in the Inland Delta; millet–sorghum rotations across the Sahel; orchard and garden plots near cities.

• Camel caravans optimized with relay oases; riverine canoes moved grain and fish.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Niani–Timbuktu–Gao trunk within Mali; Gao–Air–Takedda; Takrur–Senegal; Hausa–Saharan routes through Air and Ajjer into the Maghreb; Benin–Nupe forest–savanna corridors to the Niger.

Belief and Symbolism

• Islam deepened in courts and trading towns (mosques, jurists, scholars); Timbuktu and Walata matured as centers of learning.

• Indigenous ritual remained strong in rural communities (earth shrines, rainmaking).

• Court pageantry—gold regalia, horse trappings—signaled sovereignty; griots preserved dynastic memory.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Route redundancy across Sahara and Sahel hedged against drought/war.

• Plural economies—grain, rice, fish, gold, salt, kola—spread risk.

• Urban institutions—guilds, mosques, market courts—stabilized exchange; kin/clan systems secured rural production.

Long-Term Significance

By 1395, West Africa was a constellation of powerful states and city networks—Mali at its height, Songhay rising, Hausa and Benin consolidating, Jolof emerging—bound into Afro-Eurasian circuits by gold, salt, and scholarship, and resilient enough to carry this prosperity into the 15th century.

West Africa (1396–1539 CE): Empires, Gold, and the Atlantic Turn

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of West Africa includes the Sahelian and savanna zones stretching from the Senegal and Niger River basins across modern Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, as well as the forest and coastal belts of modern Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria. Anchoring landscapes included the Niger River’s inland delta, the Sahel’s grasslands, the forested Guinea coast, and the Atlantic seaboard with its lagoons and estuaries.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age brought modest cooling and rainfall variability. Sahelian zones experienced alternating drought and recovery, testing herders and farmers. Savanna and forest belts enjoyed relatively stable rainfall, sustaining yam and oil palm cultivation. Along the coast, seasonal monsoons shaped farming cycles, while the Atlantic upwelling enriched marine fisheries.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Sahel and savanna: Millet, sorghum, and rice supported large populations, with cattle, sheep, and camels managed in mixed herding systems.

• Forest belt: Yams, kola, palm oil, and plantains anchored subsistence, complemented by hunting and river fisheries.

• Urban centers: Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne, and other cities combined farming hinterlands with trade, scholarship, and crafts.

Technology & Material Culture

Iron smelting and blacksmithing flourished, supplying weapons, hoes, and ritual objects. Sahelian architecture—mud-brick mosques and palaces—defined skylines (Djinguereber Mosque, Askia’s Tomb). In the forest, the Benin court produced brass and ivory works. Textiles, leatherwork, and gold jewelry circulated widely. Manuscripts in Arabic script preserved Islamic scholarship in Timbuktu and other cities.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trans-Saharan routes: Caravans carried gold, kola, and captives north in exchange for salt, horses, and luxuries.

• River corridors: The Niger River served as an east–west artery for goods and ideas.

• Atlantic seaboard: Portuguese ships reached Senegal in the mid-15th century, later tapping the Gambia and Gold Coast, inaugurating direct Atlantic trade while older Saharan links persisted.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

Islam flourished in Sahelian capitals: mosques, Qur’anic schools, and zawiyas anchored faith and learning. Oral traditions of griots preserved epics and genealogies. In the forest zone, ritual kingship, sacred groves, and ancestral veneration structured societies. Festivals, drumming, and praise-songs reinforced political legitimacy.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Agricultural diversification and transhumance buffered environmental stress. Tribute and trade redistributed surpluses in lean years. Coastal chiefdoms exploited fisheries and mangroves. Spiritual rituals reinforced cohesion under climate pressure.

Transition

By 1539 CE, the Songhai Empire dominated the Niger bend; Benin flourished as an artistic and political power; and coastal polities engaged Portuguese traders. Gold, ivory, kola, and enslaved captives linked West Africa to both Saharan and Atlantic networks, reshaping its place in the wider world.