Syria Palæstina, Roman province of (Judea, Samaria, and Idumea)

The Jewish Diaspora, which had begun with the Babylonian captivity in the sixth century BCE, and which had resumed early in the Hellenistic period, now involves most Jews in an exodus from what they continue to view as the land promised to them as the descendants of Abraham.

Following the destruction of the Temple in 70, and especially after the suppression of the Bar-Kochba Rebellion in 135, religio-nationalist aspects of Judaism are supplanted by a growing intellectual- spiritual trend.

Lacking a state, the survival of the Jewish people is dependent on study and observance of the written law, the Torah.

To maintain the integrity and cohesiveness of the community, the Torah is enlarged into a coherent system of moral theology and community law.

The rabbi and the synagogue become the normative institutions of Judaism, which hereafter is essentially a congregationalist faith.

Roman emperors, replacing the Greeks and the Seleucids, inherit already thriving cities—Damascus, Palmyra (present-day Tadmur), and Busra ash Sham in the fertile Hawran Plateau south of Damascus.

Under the emperor Hadrian, Syria is prosperous, and its cities are major trading centers; Hawran is a well-watered breadbasket.

After making a survey of the country, the Romans establish a tax system based on the potential harvest of farmlands; it is to remain the key to the land tax structure until 1945.

The Romans give Syria some of the grandest buildings in the world, as well as aqueducts, wells, and roads that are still in use.

Rome and Persia continue their sporadic conflicts in Syria and Anatolia.

Near East (100–243 CE): Christianity, Roman Administration, and Jewish Resilience

Between 100 and 243 CE, the Near East is significantly shaped by the interplay of Roman administrative structures, the rise of Christianity, Jewish resilience, and ongoing cultural transformations.

Roman Administration and Cultural Integration

The Roman Empire exerts firm control over the Near East, bringing stability through a strong, centralized bureaucracy supported by military power sufficient to maintain internal order and protect against nomadic incursions. In Egypt, Rome continues Ptolemaic traditions, with the emperor ruling as successor to the Pharaohs, bearing the title "Pharaoh, Lord of the Two Lands". Roman authorities maintain traditional priestly rights but carefully oversee the native priesthood. The Romans complete significant architectural projects, notably the Temple of Isis on Philae Island, begun under the Ptolemies. Artistic innovations also flourish, exemplified by the painting of lifelike portraits on wood, notably originating in the Fayyum region, used to adorn coffins of mummies.

The administration is marked by exploitation; as absentee landlords, Roman rulers extract resources and taxes primarily for the empire’s benefit, leading to significant economic and social decline within Egypt. Nevertheless, the local Hellenized populations in urban areas maintain privileges over rural native Egyptians, reinforcing societal divisions.

Spread of Christianity and Religious Tensions

Christianity, originating in Judea, spreads rapidly across the empire, deeply influencing Egypt, where tradition attributes its arrival to Saint Mark in 37 CE. The early Egyptian Christians, known as Copts, experience severe Roman persecution beginning with Emperor Septimius Severus' edict of 202, which dissolves the influential Christian School of Alexandria and forbids conversions to Christianity. Despite persecution, the Christian faith takes firm root, with its influence expanding significantly throughout Egypt and the broader Near East.

Jewish Intellectual Life and Resistance

The Jewish community, despite ongoing persecution, continues vigorous scholarly activity, especially through the compilation of the Talmud, an immense commentary and analysis of Jewish law. This intellectual activity is epitomized by the development of both the Palestinian Talmud (100–425 CE) and the more authoritative Babylonian Talmud (completed around 500 CE), reflecting the intellectual maturity and resilience of Jewish scholarship.

Jewish resistance flares notably during the Bar-Kokhba Rebellion (132–135 CE), triggered by Emperor Hadrian’s repressive edicts aimed at cultural uniformity, including prohibitions on circumcision. After crushing the rebellion, Hadrian takes severe measures, renaming Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina, banning Jewish presence in the city except once yearly to mourn at the Western Wall, now known as the Wailing Wall. Nevertheless, Jewish scholarship continues in Galilee, which emerges as the center of religious life under leaders such as Judah ha-Nasi, who oversees the final redaction of the Mishnah, foundational to both the Palestinian and Babylonian Talmuds.

Roman Expansion and Cultural Prosperity in Jordan

In 106 CE, Emperor Trajan annexes the Nabataean kingdom, organizing it into the Roman province of Arabia, with the ancient city of Petra initially serving as its capital. The Nabataeans prosper culturally and economically under Roman rule, becoming thoroughly Hellenized, and their region becomes an integral part of the empire through Roman road networks, commerce, and legal systems. Roman ruins scattered throughout present-day Jordan attest to the vibrant civic life fostered by this integration.

Kush, Meroë, and Rome’s Southern Strategy

To the south, the kingdom of Kush, particularly around Meroë, continues to interact with Rome, particularly through the Nobatae, a militarized group who establish themselves as protectors and rulers along the Nile's western bank. Rome strategically subsidizes the Nobatae to utilize Meroë as a buffer zone against nomadic incursions, notably from the Blemmyes, maintaining regional stability until nearly the fifth century.

Technological and Linguistic Developments

Technological innovation occurs with cast glass windows appearing around 100 CE in Alexandria, improving material culture despite limited transparency. Linguistic shifts accompany political changes; notably, in 212 CE, Egyptians are granted citizenship within the Roman Empire, prompting a gradual transition from Greek to Latin in higher administrative settings.

Legacy of the Age

This period witnesses the firm establishment and expansion of Christianity, the resilience and intellectual achievements of Jewish communities despite severe persecution, and a Roman administrative structure that significantly shapes the social and economic landscape. Artistic innovation, cultural integration, and linguistic evolution reflect a complex dynamic of continuity and change, laying enduring foundations for the region’s historical trajectory.

Emperor Hadrian (117-38) endeavors to establish cultural uniformity and issues several repressive edicts, including one against circumcision.

The edicts spark the Bar-Kochba Rebellion of 132-35, which is crushed by the Romans.

Hadrian closes the Academy at Yibna, and prohibits both the study of the Torah and the observance of the Jewish way of life derived from it.

Judah is included in Syria Palestina, Jerusalem is renamed Aelia Capitolina, and Jews are forbidden to come within sight of the city.

Once a year on the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple, controlled entry is permitted, allowing Jews to mourn at a remaining fragment on the Temple site, the Western Wall, which becomes known as the Wailing Wall.

The Jewish focus on study leads to the compilation of the Talmud, an immense commentary on the Torah that thoroughly analyzes the application of Jewish law to the day-to-day life of the Jewish community.

The complexity of argument and analysis contained in the Palestinian Talmud (100-425) and the more authoritative Babylonian Talmud (completed around 500) reflect the high level of intellectual maturity attained by the various schools of Jewish learning.

This inward-looking intellectualism, along with a rigid adherence to the laws and rituals of Judaism, maintains the separateness of the Jewish people, enabling them to survive the exilic experience despite the lure of conversion and frequent out-breaks of anti-Jewish fervor.

Cyrenaica under the Ptolemies had become the home of a large Jewish community, whose numbers were substantially increased by tens of thousands of Jews deported there after the failure of the rebellion against Roman rule in Palestine and the destruction of Jerusalem in CE 70.

Some of the refugees made their way into the desert, where they became nomads and nurtured their fierce hatred of Rome.

They have converted to Judaism many of the Berbers with whom they mingle, and in some cases whole tribes re identified as Jewish.

In 115 the Jews raise a major revolt in Cyrenaica that quickly spreads through Egypt back to Palestine.

The uprising is put down by 118, but only after Jewish insurgents have laid waste to Cyrenaica and sacked the city of Cyrene.

Contemporary observers count the loss of life during those years at more than two hundred thousand, and at least a century will be required to restore Cyrenaica to the order and prosperity that had meanwhile prevailed in Tripolitania.

The Middle East: 124–135 CE

Hadrian’s Eastern Policies and the Bar Kokhba Revolt

The period from 124 to 135 CE sees the continuation of Emperor Hadrian's efforts to stabilize and consolidate Rome’s eastern frontiers, moving away from aggressive territorial expansion toward strategic fortification and internal development. In the Middle East, Hadrian emphasizes administrative reform and cultural integration, reinforcing Roman influence while cautiously navigating tensions with the Parthian Empire.

In 130 CE, Hadrian tours the eastern provinces, including Syria, Judea, and Egypt, to personally oversee administrative and infrastructural projects. His policies aim at cultural assimilation, exemplified by his controversial decision to rebuild Jerusalem as the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina, complete with a temple dedicated to Jupiter on the site of the Jewish Temple. This provocative action intensifies simmering Jewish discontent.

The Jewish reaction culminates in the massive Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE), led by Simon bar Kokhba, who is proclaimed Messiah by prominent Rabbi Akiva. The revolt quickly gains momentum, temporarily establishing an independent Jewish state in Judea. Roman forces initially suffer severe losses; Emperor Hadrian, however, responds decisively, mobilizing substantial military resources to suppress the rebellion.

The brutal conflict concludes in 135 CE with a devastating Roman victory. Judean cities are razed, hundreds of thousands of Jews are killed or enslaved, and severe restrictions are imposed on Jewish religious practices and settlement, reshaping the demographic and cultural landscape of the region for generations.

Thus, the era from 124 to 135 CE highlights the tensions inherent in Roman imperial administration, demonstrating both the limitations of cultural integration policies and the enduring volatility of the Middle East under Roman governance. The aftermath of the Bar Kokhba Revolt significantly impacts Roman-Jewish relations, setting a harsh precedent for Roman responses to future uprisings.

Near East (124–135 CE): Bar Kokhba Revolt, Rabbinic Judaism, and Philosophical Developments

This era is dramatically marked by the eruption of the Third Jewish Revolt, also known as the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE), under the leadership of Simon bar Kokhba. Regarded by many Jews as the Messiah who could restore Israel's independence, Bar Kokhba achieves initial military successes and establishes an independent Jewish state across significant areas of Judea for more than two years. Rome responds with overwhelming force, deploying multiple legions in a brutal campaign culminating in 135 CE, decisively crushing the rebellion.

The aftermath is catastrophic for Judea. Roman reprisals result in widespread destruction, extensive loss of life, and a near-total depopulation of Judean territory. Jerusalem is effectively transformed into a Roman colony, renamed Aelia Capitolina, and Jews are forbidden entry. The crushing of the Bar Kokhba Revolt profoundly reshapes Jewish life, accelerating the shift from Temple-based worship to Rabbinic Judaism, centered around study, prayer, and community life.

During this same period, the divergence between Judaism and Christianity becomes more pronounced. The Jewish community increasingly rejects the Greek Septuagint translation of the scriptures, once favored by both communities. Instead, Jews now turn towards Hebrew texts and authoritative Aramaic translations such as the works of Onkelos and Rabbi Jonathan ben Uzziel, and new Greek translations such as the highly literal one by Aquila (circa 130 CE), distancing themselves from Christian scriptural interpretations.

Meanwhile, in Anatolia, Diogenes of Oenoanda constructs a monumental inscription around 130 CE, meticulously detailing the doctrines of Epicurean philosophy. This inscription, extending approximately eighty meters in length and originally comprising about twenty-five thousand words, represents one of the most significant philosophical texts from antiquity. Diogenes aims to disseminate Epicurean ideals broadly, providing ethical and philosophical guidance intended to improve human well-being.

In Jewish scholarship, Rabbi Akiva ben Joseph emerges as a transformative figure. From humble origins, Akiva becomes a leading Talmudic authority, collecting and systematically arranging oral interpretations of Jewish laws, laying the foundational structure for what would become known as the Mishnah. Akiva’s teachings emphasize human dignity, encapsulated in his maxim that “man is created in the image of God,” and he notably champions allegorical readings of scriptural texts, especially the poetic Song of Songs.

Legacy of the Era

The era 124–135 CE decisively alters the religious and cultural landscape of the Near East. The devastation of the Bar Kokhba Revolt propels Judaism into a rabbinic era, intensifying the separation from Christianity and setting the foundations of modern Jewish religious practice. Concurrent philosophical and cultural expressions, exemplified by Diogenes of Oenoanda, reflect ongoing intellectual vitality, even amidst significant social and political upheavals.

The methodical and ruthless tactics of Severus gradually wear down and constrict the rebels' area of operation, until in 135 Bar Kokhba is himself killed at Bethar, a fortress on the seacoast south of Caesarea.

The Romans suppress the revolt with great brutality, killing more than half a million people (according to some accounts) and destroying fifty fortresses and nine hundred and eighty-five Palestinian cities and villages. (The Romans According to tradition tortured and killed the ten greatest leaders and sages of Palestinian Jewry, including Rabbi Akiva, with Caesarea being the place of execution of Rabbi Akiva and the others. The death of these Ten Martyrs is still commemorated in the liturgy for Yom Kippur, "the Day of Atonement".)

Hadrian, erasing the name of Judea, combines Iudaea Province with neighboring provinces to create Syria Palaestina, which includes Judah and forms the southern third of the Roman province of Syria; Caesarea becomes the capital of the province.

The name Philistia is used to designate Syria-Palaestina.