The Near and Middle East (820 – 963 CE): Abbasid Fragmentation, Local Dynasties, and the Maritime–Desert Frontier

Geographic and Environmental Context

The Near and Middle East extended from Anatolia and the eastern Mediterranean through the Tigris–Euphrates basin and the Iranian uplands to the Arabian and Red Sea coasts and Gulf rim.
It included three linked zones:

• The Middle East—Mesopotamia, Iran, Syria, the Caucasus, and the Persian Gulf littoral.

• The Near East—Egypt, the Levant, western Arabia, Yemen, Sudan/Nubia, and western Anatolia.

• Southeast Arabia—the incense-producing highlands and coasts of Hadhramaut and Dhofar, the Empty Quarter, and Socotra, the island midway between Arabia and India.

Together these regions formed the central hinge of Afro–Eurasian civilization: canals, caravan routes, and monsoon ports tied together the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and Inner Asian worlds.

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Climate and Environmental Shifts

The period fell within late-Holocene stability:

• Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley maintained fertile irrigation systems;

• Syrian and Anatolian uplands relied on rain-fed farming, sensitive to local drought;

• Arabian deserts remained arid but supported caravan mobility;

• Oases and wadis in Hadhramaut, Dhofar, and Oman sustained terrace farming and resin groves;

• Gulf fisheries and pearl banks flourished under consistent sea temperatures.

This steady climate sustained both agrarian production and long-distance commerce.

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Societies and Political Developments

Abbasid Caliphate and Regional Dynasties

• Baghdad, still the symbolic heart of the Islamic world, saw its authority erode under competing dynasties and governors.

• In Iran and Iraq, the Tahirids (Khurasan), Saffarids (Sistan), and Samanids (Transoxiana) rose to prominence.

• In 945, the Buyids, a Shiʿi-leaning Persian house, seized Baghdad itself, reducing the caliphs to nominal figureheads.

• Syria and Cilicia oscillated between Abbasid, Tulunid (868–905), and Ikhshidid (935–969) rule, with Byzantine–Muslim frontier warfare along the Cilician thughūr.

• The Caucasus saw the revival of Christian kingdoms: Bagratid Armenia regained sovereignty in 885, while Georgia’s Bagrationi princes consolidated their realms.

Egypt and the Levant

• Ahmad ibn Tulun (868–884) founded the Tulunid dynasty, asserting Egypt’s autonomy.

  • His capital near Fustat built monumental mosques and efficient fiscal systems.

• After Tulunid decline, the Ikhshidids maintained quasi-independent rule until the Fatimids seized Egypt in 969.

• Levantine ports—notably Tyre and Tripoli—prospered as glass, textile, and sugar centers.

• In western Anatolia, Byzantine control persisted along the Aegean, despite raids from Cilicia and Syria.

Arabia and the Gulf

• Eastern Arabia and Oman: The Qarmatians, a radical Shiʿi movement centered in al-Ahsa–Qatif, rose after 899, seizing Bahrain and attacking pilgrim caravans.

• Ibāḍī Oman endured as a theocratic state, its ports at Suhar and Qalhat linking the Gulf to India.

• In Yemen, Zaydi imams established authority in the northern highlands, while the southern Hadhramaut and Dhofar valleys thrived on frankincense cultivation.

• Socotra stood as a maritime crossroads where Arab, Persian, and Indian traders mingled with local Austronesian-descended seafarers.

• The Empty Quarter (Rubʿ al-Khali) remained the preserve of Bedouin tribes guiding caravans across vast, ungoverned sands.

Sudan, Nubia, and Christian Frontiers

• Makuria and Alodia, Christian kingdoms of the Nile south of Aswan, maintained independence through the Baqt treaty, trading slaves and gold for Egyptian grain and textiles.

• Armenia and Georgia to the north and Nubia to the south framed the Islamic heartlands with strong Christian enclaves, balancing the Abbasid world through diplomacy and trade.

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Economy and Trade

• Agrarian cores:

  • Iraq and Khuzestan: grain, dates, flax, and cotton under canal irrigation.

  • Egypt: Nile surpluses of wheat, barley, and linen textiles.

  • Yemen and Oman: aromatics, coffee precursors, horses, and pearls.

  • Syria and Anatolia: olives, vines, and cereals.

• Maritime commerce:

  • The Persian Gulf hosted fleets linking Basra and Siraf to India, Socotra, and East Africa.

  • The Red Sea tied Aden, Aydhab, and Jeddah to Egypt and Levantine ports.

• Caravan and overland routes:

  • From Tabriz–Rayy–Nishapur across Iran;

  • Mosul–Aleppo–Cilicia toward the Byzantine frontier;

  • Caucasus passes (Darial/Derbent);

  • Hadhramaut–Najran–Mecca incense road through the desert interior.

• Coinage and credit: Abbasid gold dīnārs and silver dirhams circulated widely; regional mints under Buyids and Samanids proliferated; merchants’ letters of credit (suftaja) streamlined long-distance exchange.

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Subsistence and Technology

• Canals and qanāt systems sustained Mesopotamia and Iran.

• Syrian norias and Yemeni terraces optimized water management.

• Shipbuilding: sewn-plank and nailed hulls; lateen sails enabled monsoon navigation.

• Craft industries: Egyptian linen, Levantine glass, Persian silks, Yemeni aromatics, and Anatolian wines defined the region’s artisan wealth.

• Military innovation: cavalry archery, heavy cataphracts, and fortified passes; the Cilician frontier became a laboratory of cross-cultural warfare.

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Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Tigris–Euphrates canal system: arteries of Mesopotamian life.

• Nile River: the logistical spine of Egypt.

• Red Sea and Arabian Sea routes: joined the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean via Aden and Socotra.

• Caucasus and Anatolian corridors: funneled trade between steppe and Mediterranean.

• Pilgrimage routes: Mecca and Medina connected the Islamic world through faith and exchange.

From the incense valleys of Dhofar to the ports of Tyre and Tripoli, these networks bound deserts, rivers, and seas into one integrated economy.

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Belief and Symbolism

• Islam: Abbasid orthodoxy persisted at Baghdad, but regional heterodoxies thrived—Qarmatian egalitarianism, Zaydi imamate in Yemen, and Ibāḍī autonomy in Oman.

• Christianity: Byzantium retained coastal Anatolia and Cyprus; Armenia, Georgia, Nubia, and Makuria remained vibrant Christian realms on Islam’s periphery.

• Judaism: thriving mercantile communities in Cairo, Fustat, and the Levant linked Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trade.

• Pilgrimage and ritual: The Hajj unified Muslims across regions; incense rituals in Dhofar and Hadhramaut blended ancient practice with Islamic trade wealth.

• Socotra’s syncretism: Islam and Christianity coexisted with pre-Islamic traditions, embodying the cultural crossroads of the Arabian Sea.

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Adaptation and Resilience

• Decentralization allowed flexibility: Tulunid Egypt, Buyid Iraq, and Zaydi Yemen adapted governance to local needs.

• Hydraulic and maritime redundancy—multiple water and trade routes—buffered ecological shocks.

• Pluralism fostered resilience: Islamic, Christian, and Jewish communities often cooperated economically.

• Caravan–port symbiosis balanced overland and sea commerce, ensuring continuity even amid political fragmentation.

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Long-Term Significance

By 963 CE, the Near and Middle East had evolved into a polycentric system:

• Baghdad remained the spiritual capital but shared power with Buyid amirs, Tulunid–Ikhshidid Egypt, Zaydi Yemen, and Qarmatian Bahrain.

• Christian Armenia, Georgia, Nubia, and Byzantine Anatolia endured as autonomous partners and rivals.

• Southeast Arabia and Socotra connected caravan deserts with Indian Ocean circuits, ensuring the region’s role as the commercial and religious nexus of the Old World.

This balance of fragmentation and connectivity defined the transitional centuries between the early Abbasid empire and the later Islamic golden age—an era of hydraulic empires, desert confederations, and maritime corridors linking Africa, Asia, and Europe in a single interdependent world.

Middle East (820 – 963 CE): Abbasid Fragmentation, Caucasian Kingdoms, and the Qarmatian Gulf

Geographic and Environmental Context

As defined above. Key zones: Baghdad–Tigris, Tabriz–Azerbaijan–Rayy, Caucasus (Armenia–Georgia–Azerbaijan), Cilicia and Syrian uplands, eastern Jordan, northeastern Cyprus, and the eastern Arabia–northern Oman–Gulf rim.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Stable late-Holocene conditions; productivity hinged on Tigris–Euphrates canals, qanāt belts in Iran, and Syrian rain-fed plains.

• Gulf fisheries and pearls flourished; steppe margins swung with rainfall.

Societies and Political Developments

• Abbasid Baghdad retained symbolic primacy while power devolved to regional dynasts.

• Iran–Iraq: Tahirids (Khurasan), Saffarids (Sistan) and Samanids (Transoxiana/Khurasan) pressed Abbasid frontiers; Buyids seized Baghdad in 945, creating a Shi‘i-leaning amirate over the caliphs.

• Syria & Cilicia: administered under Abbasid/Tulunid (868–905) and later Ikhshidid (935–969) governors; Cilician thughūr (frontiers) saw Byzantine–Muslim raiding.

• Caucasus: Bagratid Armenia restored kingship (885); Georgia consolidated under Bagrationi princes.

• Eastern Arabia–Gulf: the Qarmatians (from 899) dominated al-Ahsa–Qatif, raiding the Gulf and pilgrim routes; northern Oman maintained Ibāḍī polities and port autonomy.

• Northeastern Cyprus: intermittent Byzantine–Abbasid condominium and raiding base.

• Lebanon (north/coastal—Tripoli) prospered as a glass/textile port (southernmost strip excluded).

Economy and Trade

• Irrigated cores: Mesopotamian grain/dates/flax; Persian cotton/silk; Syrian cereals/olives.

• Gulf maritime: pearls (Bahrain/Qatif), horses, dates, and Gulf–India traffic via Hormuz’s precursors and Omani ports.

• Caravans: Tabriz–Rayy–Khurasan silk/horse routes; Aleppo/upper Syria to Jazira–Iraq.

• Coinage: Abbasid dīnārs/dirhams; regional mints proliferated under Buyids/Samanids.

Subsistence and Technology

• Canals & qanāt kept oases productive; Syrian norias; glass/textiles in Syrian and Lebanese workshops.

• Military: cavalry, composite bows; fortified Cilician passes.

Movement Corridors

• Tabriz–Rayy–Nishapur; Mosul–Aleppo–Cilicia; Baghdad–Basra–Gulf; Caucasus passes (Darial/Derbent); northeastern Cyprus as a coastal node.

Belief and Symbolism

• Sunni orthodoxy at Baghdad; Shi‘i Buyid patronage later in the century.

• Armenian/Georgian churches flourished; Ibāḍī Oman endured.

• Qarmatian heterodoxy challenged pilgrimage and Abbasid prestige.

Long-Term Significance

By 963, the Middle East was a polycentric field: Buyid Baghdad, Armenian–Georgian crowns, Ikhshidid Syria/Cilicia, and a Qarmatian-dominated Gulf—frameworks that would channel Fatimid, Seljuk, and Byzantine surges in the next age.

A series of local dynasties appears in Greater Iran and Central Asia: the Tahirids (821-873), the Saffarids (867-ca. 1495), and the Samanids (819-1005).

The same process repeats in the West: Spain had broken away from the Abbasid Caliphate in 756, Morocco in 788, Tunisia in 800, and Egypt in 868.

The growing prominence of Turks in military and in political affairs, in addition to the cleavages between Arabs and Iranians and between Sunnis and Shias, give cause for discontent and rivalry at court.

Nomadic, Turkic-speaking warriors have been moving out of Central Asia into Transoxiana (i.e., across the Oxus River) for more than a millennium.

The Abbasid caliphs had begun importing Turks as slave-warriors (Mamluks) early in the ninth century.

The imperial palace guards of the Abbasids were Mamluks who were originally commanded by free Iraqi officers.

By 833, however, Mamluks themselves are officers and gradually, because of their greater military proficiency and dedication, they begin to occupy high positions at court.

The mother of Caliph Mutasim (who comes to power in 833) had been a Turkish slave, and her influence is substantial.

The Turkish commanders, no longer checked by their Iranian and Arab rivals at court by the tenth century, are able to appoint and depose caliphs.

The political power of the caliphate is fully separate from its religious function for the first time.

The Mamluks continue to permit caliphs to come to power because of the importance of the office as a symbol for legitimizing claims to authority.
 
A military family known as the Buwayhids occupies Baghdad in 945 after subjugating western Iran.

Shias from the Iranian province of Daylam south of the Caspian Sea, the Buyids continue to permit Sunni Abbasid caliphs to ascend to the throne.

The humiliation of the caliphate at being manipulated by Shias, and by Iranian ones at that, is immense.

The Sunni-Shia split had weakened the effectiveness of Islam as a single unifying force and as a sanction for a single political authority.

Although the intermingling of various linguistic and cultural groups contribute greatly to the enrichment of Islamic civilization, it also is a source of great tension and contributes to the decay of Abbasid power.

There is trouble in the south of Iraq.

Ali ibn Muhammad (Ali the Abominable) founds a state of enslaved blacks known as Zanj in 869.

The Zanj bring a large part of southern Iraq and southwestern Iran under their control and in the process enslave many of their former masters.

The Zanj Rebellion is finally put down in 883, but not before causing great suffering.

Near East (820 – 963 CE): Fragmented Caliphate, Autonomous Dynasties, and Christian Strongholds

Geographic and Environmental Context

The Near East includes Israel, Egypt, Sudan, western Saudi Arabia, western Yemen, most of Jordan, southwestern Cyprus, and western Turkey (Aeolia, Ionia, Doria, Lydia, Caria, Lycia, and the Troad).

• Egypt and the Nile Valley remained the agricultural backbone, linked to the Red Sea and Mediterranean.

• Levantine coasts (Tyre, Acre, Caesarea) connected the interior to maritime trade.

• Western Arabia and Yemen provided pilgrimage routes and Red Sea harbors.

• Western Turkey (Anatolian coast) featured Greek-founded cities, harbors, and fertile valleys, contested between Byzantines and Muslim raiders.

• Sudan was a transition to Nubian and Sahelian worlds, linked to the Nile.

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Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The Eastern Mediterranean climate supported cereals, olives, and vines in coastal and Anatolian zones.

• The Nile floods continued to sustain Egypt, though fluctuations periodically strained revenue.

• Arabian and Yemeni highlands offered terrace farming; arid interiors depended on oases and caravan routes.

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Societies and Political Developments

• Egypt:

  • The Abbasid caliphs appointed governors, but local autonomy grew.

  • In 868, Ahmad ibn Tulun established the Tulunid dynasty in Egypt and Syria, marking a major step toward independence.

  • Ibn Tulun built mosques and reformed tax systems; his dynasty endured until Fatimid conquest in 969.

• Levant:

  • Abbasid rule was nominal; Tulunid and later Ikhshidid governors administered.

  • Coastal cities retained prosperity, with Tyre particularly flourishing in glass and textile production.

• Western Arabia and Yemen:

  • The Abbasids remained custodians of Mecca and Medina, but real control was tenuous.

  • Zaydi imams rose in northern Yemen by the 9th century, establishing durable religious-political authority.

• Sudan/Nubia:

  • The Christian kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia remained strong, resisting Arab expansion south of Egypt.

  • The Baqt treaty with Muslim Egypt ensured trade and peace, exchanging slaves for goods.

• Western Turkey (Anatolia):

  • The Byzantine Empire contested Arab raiding from Cilicia and western Anatolia.

  • Coastal cities (Ephesus, Smyrna, Miletus) remained under Byzantine authority, though exposed to conflict.

• Southwestern Cyprus:

  • Divided between Byzantine and Abbasid influence, occasionally serving as a shared province (condominium) and raiding base.

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Economy and Trade

• Egypt: Nile agriculture (wheat, barley, flax) supported urban markets; Alexandria remained a hub for Mediterranean commerce.

• Levantine coasts: exported glass, sugar, textiles, and ceramics; imported spices and metals.

• Arabia/Yemen: incense, aromatics, and horses moved via Red Sea ports to Egypt and Syria.

• Western Turkey: Byzantine Anatolia produced olives, vines, and grain, and shipped timber and metals.

• Nubia/Sudan: ivory, gold, slaves, and ostrich feathers moved northward in exchange for textiles and wheat.

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Subsistence and Technology

• Irrigation and terrace systems in Yemen and Egypt maximized water management.

• Cisterns and aqueducts in Anatolia sustained towns through dry seasons.

• Shipbuilding: Red Sea and Mediterranean craft carried goods between ports.

• Craft industries: Egyptian linen, Levantine glass, Yemeni aromatics, and Anatolian wines.

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Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Nile River: Egypt’s transport backbone, linking Upper Egypt to Alexandria.

• Red Sea routes: ports in Arabia and Yemen tied the Indian Ocean to Egypt.

• Caravan tracks: Mecca–Medina pilgrim routes and incense roads across Yemen.

• Levantine coastlines: maritime links between Tyre, Cyprus, and Anatolia.

• Western Anatolian roads: tied Greek-founded cities to Constantinople and Byzantine networks.

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Belief and Symbolism

• Islam: Abbasid legitimacy endured, but local rulers (Tulunids, Zaydis) combined religious and political authority.

• Christianity: Nubia (Makuria, Alodia) remained deeply Christian, resisting Islamic advance. Byzantine Christianity thrived in western Anatolia and Cyprus.

• Judaism: Jewish communities in Egypt and the Levant participated actively in trade.

• Pilgrimage: Mecca and Medina drew pilgrims from across the Islamic world.

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Adaptation and Resilience

• Local autonomy (Tulunids in Egypt, Zaydis in Yemen) allowed adaptation to weakening Abbasid central control.

• Trade redundancy: Mediterranean ports, Red Sea lanes, and caravans provided alternative routes when conflict flared.

• Religious pluralism: Christians in Nubia and Byzantium, Muslims in Arabia and Egypt, Jews across cities — created overlapping networks of survival and resilience.

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Long-Term Significance

By 963 CE, the Near East had become a mosaic of autonomous powers:

• Tulunid Egypt had broken away from Baghdad.

• Zaydi Yemen established a long-lived religious state.

• Makuria and Alodia kept Christian Nubia independent.

• Byzantines held western Anatolia against Muslim raids.

• Levantine and Red Sea trade continued to knit the region into global exchanges.

This laid the foundations for the Fatimid conquest of Egypt (969), the growing significance of Nubian Christianity, and the sharpening of Byzantine–Islamic frontiers in Anatolia and Cyprus.

Signs of internal decay, in addition to the ongoing Zanj rebellion, began to appear in the 'Abbasid empire as petty states (some not so petty) emerge in different parts of the realm.

The Tulunid dynasty of Egypt, which marks the beginning of the disengagement of Egypt and, with it, of Syria and Palestine from 'Abbasid rule, is one of the first such polities to affect Palestine.

Ahmad bin Tulun, the son of a Turkic slave who had eventually come to command the Caliph's private guard, had gained the favor of the Caliph al-Musta'in after serving in military campaigns against the Roman Empire in Tarsus.

On returning to Baghdad in 863, the Caliph had presented him with a concubine, Meyyaz, with whom he has Khumarawaih, the son who will eventually succeed him as ruler of Egypt.

The Caliph al-Mu'tazz in 868 had appointed Bayik Bey as the governor of Egypt; Bayik Bey in turn had sent Ahmad ibn Ṭūlūn as his regent.

Ibn Ṭūlūn, on arriving in Egypt in September 868, had found that the existing capital of Egypt, al-Fustat, established in 641 by Amr ibn al-'As, was too small to accommodate his armies.

He had founded a new city to serve as his capital, Madinat al-Qatta'i, or the quartered city.

Al-Qatta'i is laid out in the style of grand cities of Persia and the Eastren Roman Empire, including a large public square, hippodrome, a palace for the governor, and a large ceremonial Mosque of Ibn Tulun, which is named for ibn Ṭūlūn. (The city will be razed in 905; the mosque alone has survived.)

Ibn Ṭūlūn's rule in Egypt had been marked initially by a struggle for control with the existing head of the council of financial affairs, Ibn al-Mudabbir, who reported directly to the Caliph, not to the governor of Egypt, and as such had ignored ibn Ṭūlūn entirely.

Ibn al-Mudabbir was disliked by the local population because of high rates of taxation (particularly against non-Muslim citizens, which comprised over half of Egypt's population) and greed.

Ibn Ṭūlūn had used his influence at the Abbasid court to work against Ibn al-Mudabbir, and had finally been able to have him removed after four years.

Bayik Bey had been murdered around 870, and governorship had passed to Yarjukh al-Turki, father of ibn Tulun's wife, Hatun.

Yarjukh had retained ibn Ṭūlūn as his regent in Egypt, and increased his power by granting him authority over Alexandria and other territories in the region.

Ibn Ṭūlūn had led a campaign against the rebellious governor of Syria, ‘Īsā ibn Shaykh ash-Shaybanī, using the rebellion as a pretext in purchasing a large number of slaves to increase the strength of his army, which forms the basis of his personal authority, and allowing him to amass an army of one hundred thousand men.

The Caliph al-Mu'tamid in 871 had appointed his brother Al-Muwaffaq as governor of Damascus, and his son, later the Caliph Al-Mu'tadid, to succeed Yarjukh as governor of Egypt.

The rebellion of the Zanji, a group of black slaves who seized control of Basra and much of southern Iraq during this decade, has siphoned much of the caliphate's resources away from the provinces.

Ibn Ṭūlūn in 874 had taken advantage of the chaos in Iraq to sever relations with Baghdad and declare independence.

When in 877 Ibn Tulun fails to pay Egypt's full contribution to the 'Abbasid campaign against the Zanj uprising in Iraq, the caliphal government, dominated by the caliph's brother al-Muwaffaq, realizes that Egypt is slipping from imperial control.

Al-Mu'tamid sends armed forces under Musa ibn Bugha to retake control of Egypt, but the attempted invasion is a rout, with most of Musa's army scattering before the larger forces led by ibn Ṭūlūn.

Ibn Ṭūlūn's forces follow and take control of large portions of Syria, but the campaign is cut short when ibn Ṭūlūn has to return to Egypt to deal with a revolt led by his own son, ‘Abbās.

The Middle East: 880–891 CE

Abbasid Decline and Regional Fragmentation

The era from 880 to 891 CE witnesses continued fragmentation within the Abbasid Caliphate, characterized by persistent rebellions, decentralization of authority, and the rise of semi-independent regional powers.

Continuation and Suppression of the Zanj Rebellion

The Zanj Rebellion, a significant uprising led by Ali ibn Muhammad near Basra, continues to severely disrupt Abbasid governance and trade. Initially a movement by enslaved peoples imported from across the Islamic Empire, the Zanj rebels had seized considerable territory, even founding a fortified capital city, Al-Mukhtara. By 883 CE, however, Abbasid forces, under the capable and ruthless general Al-Muwaffaq, brother of Caliph al-Mu'tamid, decisively suppress the rebellion after sustained, grueling campaigns. The fall of Al-Mukhtara in 883 CE marks the brutal conclusion of this uprising, resulting in extensive casualties and economic devastation in southern Iraq.

Caliph al-Mu'tadid and the Recentralization Efforts

Following Al-Muwaffaq's successes, his son, Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad, known as al-Mu'tadid, emerges as a strong figure at the Abbasid court. Ascending formally to the caliphate in 892 CE, his early influence begins to be felt strongly during this era, as he energetically seeks to recentralize Abbasid power, reorganize the administration, and assert imperial authority against various semi-autonomous provincial governors.

Independent Regional Powers

This era further sees the growing independence of regional dynasties from the Abbasid central authority. The Saffarids, under the ambitious and militarily capable leadership of Ya'qub ibn al-Layth and his successor, Amr ibn al-Layth, dominate eastern Iran and Afghanistan after decisively overthrowing the Tahirids in 873 CE. Meanwhile, the Tulunid dynasty, under Ahmad ibn Tulun and subsequently his son Khumarawayh, firmly consolidates control over Egypt and extends influence into Syria, transforming their domains into prosperous and semi-autonomous states, largely independent from Abbasid authority

Cultural and Economic Continuity Amidst Political Instability

Despite political turbulence, intellectual and cultural life across the Abbasid domains remains vibrant. Baghdad, though politically weakened, continues to be an intellectual beacon, fostering scholarship in philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and literature. Economic activities persist, bolstered by regional dynasties investing in infrastructure, agriculture, and trade, reflecting the enduring resilience of Abbasid cultural traditions even amid political decline.

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The period 880–891 CE thus exemplifies a pivotal transitional phase, highlighting both the significant weakening of Abbasid central control and the simultaneous rise of strong regional dynasties, setting the stage for profound shifts in the Middle Eastern geopolitical landscape.

The appearance of Isma'ilite propaganda in Yemen about 880 is the occasion of a more serious loss to 'Abbasid power in Arabia.