Wusun

Major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty, initially active in the modern Shandong and northern Jiangsu region, eventually lead to Wang Mang's downfall by draining his resources; this allows the leader of the other movement (the Lülin), Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi) to overthrow Wang and temporarily establish an incarnation of the Han Dynasty under him.

Chimei forces eventually overthrow Emperor Gengshi and place their own Han descendant puppet, Emperor Liu Penzi, on the throne, but briefly: the Chimei leaders' incompetence in ruling the territories under their control, which matches their brilliance on the battlefield, causes the people to rebel against them, forcing them to try to withdraw homeward.

They surrender to Liu Xiu's (Emperor Guangwu’s) newly established Eastern Han regime when he blocks their path.

The state of Goguryeo had been free to raid Han's Korean prefectures during the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang;  the Han dynasty does not reaffirm its control over the region until CE 30.

The rebellion led by the Trung Sisters of Vietnam is crushed after a few years.

Wang Mang had renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who are estranged from Han until their leader, a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin, submits to Han as a tributary vassal in 50.

This creates two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by a Han ally, and the Northern Xiongnu led by a Han enemy.

During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, Han had lost control over the Tarim Basin, which is conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in 63 and used as a base to invade Han's Hexi Corridor in Gansu.

After the Northern Xiongnu defeat and flight into the Ili River valley in 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupy the area from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people.

The reign of Emperor Zhang, from 75–88, will come to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.

Subsequent reigns will be increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans.

The upper stratum of the Xiongnu had been in chaos caused by war after the death  in 60 BCE of the former Shanyu, the title used by the rulers of the Xiongnu Luanti clan during the Qin and Han dynasties.

Hutuwusi had in 56 BCE risen against his elder brother Jihoushan or Huhanye Shanyu (the legitimate Shanyu), and the other three Shanyus by proclaiming himself as Zhizhi Guduhou Shanyu (full title) in the east.

Zhizhi Shanyu had won over most of Mongolian steppe by 54 BCE, forcing Huhanye to move south.

Huhanye, with the help of the Han Dynasty, had regained power over Mongolia and Zhizhi had in 44 BCE and fled west to Kangju with an army that numbered three thousand men by the time he arrived.

Kangju, with the help of Zhizhi, staged a successful raid against the rival Wusun tribe.

Zhizhi then compelled Kangju to build a fortress in Talas valley, near modern day Taraz, Kazakhstan, and where he had established his own state "Zhizhi," also known in European historiography as Western Xiongnu.

His conflicts with Eastern Xiongnu eventually lead the Han to launch an an expedition in 42 BCE, after Zhizhi had executed a Chinese emissary, Gu Ji, who had reached his court.

Zhizhi is killed in the Battle of Zhizhi in 36 BCE at Taraz, defending his fortress against the Han expedition led by Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang.

Zhizhi’s head is sent to Chang'an.

This action leads to what will be a half century of peace between the Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu until Wang Mang engages them in the year 10, resuming hostilities between both sides.

The Western Regions, or Xiyu, is a historical name specified in the Chinese chronicles between the third century BCE to eighth century CE that refers to the regions west of the Jade Gate (Yumen Pass), most often Central Asia or sometimes more specifically the easternmost portion of it (e.g., the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang).

Because of its strategic location astride the Silk Road, the Western Regions have been historically significant since at least the third century BCE.

The area until CE 89 is the scene of conflict between the Xiongnu and the Early and Later Han Dynasties.

The Xin dynasty’s troubles with the Xiyu kingdoms had begun in CE 10, when, Xuzhili, the King of Rear Cheshi (now part of Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture) had grown concerned over the great cost of hosting Xin ambassadors, becoming so distressed that he considers abandoning his kingdom and fleeing to Xiongnu.

Xin's Xiyu commissioner Dan Qin summons Xuzhili and executes him.

Xuzhili's brother Hulanzhi flees to the Xiongnu and attacks Dan, inflicting severe casualties, before withdrawing.

Also in 13, perhaps related to the Wusun situation, the Xiyu kingdoms join forces, attack the Xiyu commissioner Dan, and succeed in killing him.

The Xiyu kingdoms by this point no longer pledge allegiance to the Xin dynasty.

The kingdom of Wusun, under a system set up by the Han dynasty, has two kings—the greater king is a descendant of a Han princess and her husband the king of Wusun, while the lesser king is a descendant of her brother-in-law).

The dual kingdom sends ambassadors to Chang'an in CE 13 to offer tributes.

Because Xin Emperor Wang Mang knows that the people of Wusun actually have a greater affinity for the lesser king, he places the ambassador of the lesser king in a higher position than the ambassador of the greater king, which deeply insults the greater king.

Wang Mang makes another attempt in 16 to intimidate the Xiyu kingdoms back into submission, but the armies are divided and cut off from each other.

One army is wiped out entirely; the other is forced to withdraw to Qiuzi (in modern Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang) with its way back to Xin proper cut off.

The army settles here and will be unable to return for the duration of the Xin Dynasty.

Central Asia (100–243 CE): Kushan Zenith, Silk Road Prosperity, and Cultural Brilliance

From 100 to 243 CE, Central Asia—covering modern-day Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan—experienced the peak of the Kushan Empire, significant economic prosperity fueled by Silk Road commerce, and vibrant cultural achievements, particularly in art, religion, and intellectual life.

Political and Military Developments

Kushan Empire at its Height (100–180 CE)

• The Kushan Empire reached its zenith under Kanishka the Great (c. 127–150 CE), one of the most renowned Kushan emperors, whose dominion stretched from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan through northern India and Pakistan.

• Under Kanishka, the Kushans maintained diplomatic and commercial relationships with Rome, Han China, and the Parthian Empire, ensuring political stability and economic prosperity along the Silk Road.

Nomadic Pressures and Regional Stability (181–243 CE)

• After Kanishka, Kushan power gradually declined under his successors due to internal challenges, nomadic incursions from the northern steppes, and rising regional independence movements in areas like Sogdiana and Bactria.

• Increasing pressure from nomadic tribes, particularly the Xiongnu, Wusun, and early Turkic-speaking peoples, disrupted northern trade routes intermittently, challenging the Kushan hold over parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

Economic Developments and Silk Road Prosperity

Silk Road as a Source of Wealth

• The Silk Road reached unprecedented prosperity, with Central Asian cities—particularly Samarkand, Bukhara, Maracanda, Termez, and Merv—benefiting enormously from trade in silk, spices, gemstones, textiles, and other luxury goods.

• Sogdian merchants, renowned as skilled middlemen, extended their trade networks deep into China, Persia, India, and even toward Rome, accumulating substantial wealth and fostering thriving urban economies.

Agricultural Development and Urban Expansion

• Oasis-based agriculture flourished through sophisticated irrigation systems, especially in the fertile Ferghana Valley, around Samarkand, and along the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, supporting the region’s dense urban populations.

• Urban centers expanded significantly, becoming cosmopolitan hubs of international commerce and cultural exchange.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Kushan Patronage of Buddhism

• Under Kanishka, Buddhism reached its pinnacle in Central Asia, becoming a dominant religion throughout Bactria (modern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan) and spreading significantly into China via the Silk Road.

• Kanishka hosted the Fourth Buddhist Council (traditionally dated around 127 CE, though chronologies vary), which facilitated the development and spread of Mahayana Buddhism, significantly influencing Buddhist thought and art across Asia.

Artistic Flourishing: The Gandhara and Mathura Schools

• Central Asian culture flourished with artistic achievements blending Hellenistic, Indian, and Iranian influences, notably in sculpture, painting, and coinage.

• The distinctive Gandharan art, characterized by Greco-Buddhist fusion, spread extensively into Central Asian cities, leaving a lasting artistic legacy particularly in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.

Religious Pluralism and Cultural Syncretism

• Alongside Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, local Iranian cults, and emerging Christianity coexisted harmoniously, particularly in cities like Merv, Samarkand, and Termez, highlighting Central Asia’s remarkable religious diversity.

• Syncretic religious practices became common, blending local shamanistic traditions with Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and other faiths, creating uniquely Central Asian religious identities.

Social and Urban Developments

Cosmopolitan Cities and Cultural Exchange

• Central Asian cities grew increasingly multicultural, attracting traders, monks, scholars, and artisans from Rome, Persia, India, China, and beyond, transforming places like Samarkand, Bukhara, and Merv into vibrant centers of intellectual exchange and cultural fusion.

• Markets, caravanserais, and monasteries along the Silk Road facilitated extensive cross-cultural interactions, fostering enduring international links.

Nomadic and Sedentary Interactions

• Relationships between settled urban populations and nomadic steppe tribes continued to shape Central Asian society. Nomadic groups, while often disruptive, significantly influenced urban political structures, cultural practices, and economic life through both trade and conflict.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 100 to 243 CE represented a pinnacle of Central Asian power, prosperity, and cultural influence under the Kushan Empire. Its strategic role at the crossroads of Eurasia facilitated extensive economic growth through Silk Road commerce, enhancing the region’s global significance. Culturally, the era left profound legacies, particularly through Buddhism’s spread into East Asia, enduring artistic traditions, and the robust multiculturalism that shaped Central Asian identity.

By 243 CE, though the Kushan Empire’s political dominance began to wane, the cultural, religious, and economic frameworks established during this period ensured Central Asia’s continuing importance as a major Eurasian crossroads for centuries to come.

Ban Yong, with Zhang Lang, the Governor of Dunhuang, , in 127 attacks seventeen kingdoms, including Karashahr, Kucha, Kashgar, Khotan, and Yarkand.

The Han forces first subdue Karashahr; then …

…Kucha also capitulates, thus opening the route all the way to …

…Kashgar, which, in turn, opens communications once again to the countries further west, such as Ferghana, Kangju (Sogdiana) and the Yuezhi (the Kushan Empire); …