The Arts Club is founded by Charles Dickens, Anthony Trollope, Frederic Leighton, and others in Hanover Square, London on June 12, 1863.

It remains today a meeting place for men and women involved in the creative arts either professionally or as patrons.

Leighton, born in Scarborough to Augusta Susan and Dr. Frederic Septimus Leighton, has two sisters including Alexandra, who is Robert Browning's biographer.

Educated at University College School, London, he then received his artistic training on the European continent, first from Eduard von Steinle and then from Giovanni Costa.

At age seventeen, in the summer of 1847, he met the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer in Frankfurt and drew his portrait, in graphite and gouache on paper—the only known full-length study of Schopenhauer done from life.

When he was twenty-four he was in Florence; he studied at the Accademia di Belle Arti, and painted the procession of the Cimabue Madonna through the Borgo Allegri.

From 1855 to 1859 he lived in Paris, where he met Ingres, Delacroix, Corot and Millet.

In 1860, he moved to London, where he associates with the Pre-Raphaelites.

He had designed Elizabeth Barrett Browning's tomb for Robert Browning in the English Cemetery, Florence in 1861.

Northwest Europe (1864–1875): Prosperity, Public Health Breakthroughs, and Political Challenges

Mid-Victorian Prosperity and Stability

From 1864 to 1875, Britain sustained its mid-Victorian “Golden Years,” characterized by substantial economic prosperity, social harmony, and diplomatic caution. Historian Bernard Porter highlights this period as one of peace and rising national prosperity, driven by expanding industry, robust global trade, and steady improvements in living standards, particularly for the middle and working classes.

Political reforms, such as Benjamin Disraeli’s Second Reform Act (1867), extended voting rights significantly, reflecting gradual democratization in response to working-class demands initially articulated by the earlier Chartist movement. British society remained stable, with the aristocracy and landed gentry continuing to hold most power and social prestige, though middle-class values steadily permeated society.

Cholera Outbreaks and Advances in Epidemiology

Despite growing prosperity, Britain still grappled with public health crises. In 1866, a localized cholera epidemic erupted in London’s East End, killing 5,596 people. The outbreak occurred just as London's ambitious sewage and water treatment infrastructure, designed by Joseph Bazalgette, neared completion—although crucial sections in the East End remained unfinished. This area’s severe overcrowding amplified the epidemic’s severity.

Noted epidemiologist William Farr conclusively identified contaminated water supplied by the East London Water Company as the source of infection, building on Dr. John Snow’s earlier groundbreaking work from the 1854 cholera epidemic. Farr’s work reinforced acceptance of the waterborne theory of disease, driving comprehensive sanitation reforms. In the same year, contaminated canal water caused another smaller outbreak at Ystalyfera in South Wales, leading to 119 deaths among workers associated with local waterworks and their families. These incidents accelerated nationwide reforms, culminating in legislation such as the Sanitary Act of 1866 and, later, the Public Health Act of 1875.

Irish Nationalism and the Home Rule Movement

In Ireland, nationalist aspirations re-emerged powerfully in the 1870s, as moderate nationalists formed the Irish Parliamentary Party, led prominently by Charles Stewart Parnell. Advocating Home Rule—limited self-government for Ireland under the British Crown—the party rapidly gained influence, significantly reshaping British and Irish politics.

Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone introduced Home Rule Bills, which, despite their failure in Parliament, profoundly divided British politics. Many Liberals supported Home Rule, but a significant unionist minority—largely Protestant, based in Ulster—opposed it fiercely. Unionists feared discrimination from a predominantly Catholic nationalist parliament in Dublin and economic harm to Ulster’s prosperous industries. This conflict laid lasting groundwork for future political tensions.

Formation of Canada and Imperial Consolidation

Britain continued consolidating its imperial framework. In 1867, Britain united most of its North American colonies as the Dominion of Canada, granting substantial self-government and responsibility for domestic affairs, while retaining control over foreign policy and defense. This development marked a critical shift toward self-governing dominions within the empire, creating a model subsequently applied elsewhere.

Aestheticism, Fashion, and Gender Norms

Social and cultural trends shifted gradually during this era, notably within artistic and intellectual circles. By about 1870, women associated with the Aesthetic Movement adopted dresses featuring an uncorseted appearance, reflecting a subtle challenge to prevailing restrictive fashions. However, neither these aesthetic styles nor earlier progressive designs from the Pre-Raphaelites and Amelia Bloomer significantly displaced corsets, which continued to dominate women’s fashion.

Conversely, the middle-class aspiration toward gentlemanly respectability fostered considerable conformity in men's attire, exemplified by standardized, formal suits. These developments reinforced prevailing middle-class values of modesty, decorum, and social uniformity.

Education Reform: Toward Universal Literacy

Educational reform accelerated dramatically, with Forster’s Elementary Education Act (1870) making elementary schooling compulsory for children, transforming literacy rates and educational access. Local school boards established by this Act significantly improved standards, fostering a more educated populace capable of supporting Britain’s complex, industrialized economy.

Technological Advancements and Global Communication

Technological and industrial innovation continued unabated. Britain's infrastructure, especially railways, expanded considerably, supporting commerce and industry. Additionally, global communications were transformed by the successful laying of the transatlantic telegraph cable in 1866, enabling instant communication between Britain and North America. This advancement profoundly reshaped diplomacy, trade, and information dissemination.

British Diplomacy: Pragmatic Neutrality and Strategic Interests

Britain maintained diplomatic pragmatism during continental conflicts, notably the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), adopting a neutral stance while carefully monitoring shifting balances of European power. Persistent concerns regarding Russia’s ambitions toward the declining Ottoman Empire influenced cautious foreign policy aimed at preserving strategic interests in the Eastern Mediterranean and routes to India.

Britain’s earlier controversial support for the American Confederacy during the American Civil War, especially through shipbuilding (notably the CSS Alabama), was diplomatically resolved in the Treaty of Washington (1871), marking a significant precedent for peaceful international arbitration and strengthening future Anglo-American relations.

Persistent Gender Inequality and Early Feminist Advocacy

Although social conditions improved broadly, gender inequality persisted starkly. Economic opportunities for women remained severely limited, prompting early feminist advocacy for enhanced education, employment opportunities, and greater autonomy. Progress remained gradual, with the rigidity of gender norms still deeply entrenched in Victorian society.

Leisure, Tourism, and Victorian Culture

Organized tourism, spearheaded by entrepreneur Thomas Cook, expanded widely, making leisure travel accessible and popular among the middle classes. Cook's tours extended throughout Europe, Egypt, and North America, reflecting Victorian prosperity and curiosity. Literature flourished through writers such as George Eliot, Anthony Trollope, and the late Charles Dickens, portraying contemporary social realities and advocating gradual social reform.

In contrast, the fine arts continued to experience limited official support, overshadowed by the Victorian emphasis on industrial achievements, commerce, and engineering prowess showcased earlier at the Great Exhibition (1851).

Scandinavian and Icelandic National Developments

In Scandinavia, Norway steadily affirmed its distinct national identity within its union with Sweden. Denmark adjusted to territorial losses suffered during the Second Schleswig War (1864), profoundly shaping national consciousness.

Simultaneously, Iceland’s independence movement gained momentum under nationalist leader Jón Sigurðsson, following liberalization of Icelandic trade in the 1850s. The emerging Icelandic nationalism laid critical foundations for increasing autonomy and future independence aspirations.

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From 1864 to 1875, Northwest Europe, particularly Britain, navigated complex yet prosperous years. Significant public health breakthroughs and sanitation improvements followed deadly cholera outbreaks, notably in London and South Wales. Political and social reforms gradually reshaped British society, reflected in expanded voting rights, improving labor conditions, educational access, and emerging feminist ideals. Internationally, cautious diplomacy preserved Britain's strategic interests amid continental turmoil and reshaped relationships with North America and Ireland. These developments collectively solidified Britain’s position at its imperial and economic apex, laying critical foundations for the later Victorian era.

Fyodor Dostoyevsky had continued to work on his Diaries in early 1876.

The book's main theme was, like The Adolescent, child abuse by adults.

This essay collection has sold more than twice as many as any of his previous books.

Dostoyevsky has received more letters from readers than at any time before.

People of different ages and occupations visit him, now a theology student who has religious doubts, now an agnostic teacher.

Thanks to Anna's brother, the family finally buys a dacha in Staraya Russa.

In the summer of 1876, Dostoyevsky had again begun suffering from breathlessness.

He visited Ems for a third time, was prescribed a similar remedy as before and was told that he might live for another fifteen years if he could find a healthy climate.

When Dostoyevsky returned to Russia, Tsar Alexander II had ordered him to visit his palace and to present him his Diaries.

He had also asked him to educate his sons, Sergey and Paul.

This visit led to the increase of his circle of acquaintances.

He has been a frequent guest in several salons in St. Petersburg and met with many famous people, including Princess Sofya Tolstaya, the poet Yakov Polonsky, the politician Sergei Witte, the journalist Alexey Suvorin, the musician Anton Rubinstein and artist Ilya Repin.

Dostoyevsky's health had begun to deteriorate further, and in March 1877 he had four epileptic seizures.

Instead of going back to Ems he decided to visit Maly Prikol, a manor near Kursk.

On the way back to St. Petersburg to finalize his Diaries, Dostoyevsky had visited Darovoye, the scene of many childhood memories; at the same time, Anna and her children made a pilgrimage to Kiev.

In December, he attended Nikolay Nekrasov's funeral and gave a speech, and had been appointed an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Sciences around that time.

In early 1878, he had listened to a speech about the "Man of God" delivered by Vladimir Solovyov, which had set him thinking about his next novel.

In February 1879, he had received an honorary certificate from the academy and in the spring had been invited to participate in an international congress about copyright in Paris, headed by Victor Hugo.

He declined the invitation after his son Alyosha's death on May 16, after an epileptic seizure that had lasted for two hours.

The family had later moved to an apartment on Yamskaya Street, where Dostoyevsky had written his first works.

Around this time, he had been elected to the board of directors of the Slavic Benevolent Society in St. Petersburg, and that summer had been elected to the honorary committee of the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale, which includes Victor Hugo, Ivan Turgenev, Paul Heyse, Alfred Tennyson, Anthony Trollope, Henry Longfellow, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Leo Tolstoy.

Dostoyevsky had made his fourth and final visit to Ems in early August 1879 and had been diagnosed as having pulmonary emphysema in an early stage.

The doctor believes that it is not possible to effect a cure, but said that the disease can be managed with a high likelihood of success.