Berenice IV of Egypt

Julius Caesar, having in 58 BCE initiated the conquest of Gaul, has been equally busy in preserving and improving his position at home, using part of his growing wealth from Gallic loot to hire political agents in Rome.

Marcus Linius Crassus, soon slighted by Caesar and Pompey, becomes the odd man out in the Triumvirate.

Pompey, meanwhile, has become jealous over Caesar's success in Gaul.

Clodius Pulcher, an innovative urban politician who as Tribune in 58 had passed many reforms, had soon overplayed his hand at Rome.

When Clodius turns on Pompey, Pompey defends himself by supporting Cicero's recall from exile after the intervention of recently elected tribune Titus Annius Milo.Clodius, casting cast the single vote against the decree, resorts to force to prevent the passing of the decree.

His effort is foiled by Milo, who leads an armed gang sufficiently strong to hold him in check.

Cicero returns to Italy on August 5, 57 BCE, landing at Brundisium, where he is greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia.

Clodius subsequently attacks the workmen who are rebuilding Cicero's house at public cost, assaults Cicero himself in the street, and sets fire to the house of Cicero's younger brother Q. Tullius Cicero.

Cicero, once back in Rome, steps back into his role as Pompey's defender and Clodius' antagonist, but Pompey himself retreats to his lovely young wife and his theater plans; such behavior is not expected of the once dazzling young general.

Pompey might equally have been obsessed, exhausted and frustrated.

His own party has not forgiven him for allowing Cicero's expulsion.

Some try to persuade him that Crassus is plotting his assassination.

Caesar meanwhile seems set on outstripping both his colleagues in generalship and popularity.

Ptolemy XII Auletes, the recently deposed Macedonian ruler of Hellenistic Egypt, continues to reside at Pompey's villa at Rome and to dispense bribes to senators with the aim of securing military aid from the Senate.

He falls deeper into debt to Roman moneylenders.

The Senate late in 57 passes a resolution to support Ptolemy, but when a prophecy forbids the granting of active aid, the king departs for Ephesus in Asia Minor.

Ptolemy XII in 58 BCE had failed to comment on the Roman conquest of Cyprus, a territory ruled by his brother, thereby upsetting the Egyptian population to start a rebellion.

Egyptians were already aggravated by heavy taxes (to pay for the Roman bribes) and a substantial increase in the cost of living.

Ptolemy had fled to Rome, possibly with his daughter Cleopatra VII, in search of safety.

His daughter Berenice IV became his successor, ruling as coregent with her sister (or possibly mother) Cleopatra VI Tryphaena.

A year after Ptolemy XII's exile, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena died; Berenice from 57 to 56 has ruled alone over Alexandria.

Ptolemy XII has prosecuted his restitution from Rome but has met opposition with certain members of the Senate.

His old ally Pompey had housed the exiled king and his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemy's restoration in the Senate.

During this time, Roman creditors realize that they will not get the return on their loans to the Egyptian king without his restoration.

Pressure in 57 BCE from the Roman public had thus forced the Senate's decision to restore Ptolemy.

Rome does not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king, however, as the Sibylline books state that if an Egyptian king asks for help and Rome proceeds with military intervention, great dangers and difficulties will occur.

Egyptians have heard rumors of Rome's possible intervention and dislike the idea of their exiled king's return.

Cassius Dio reports that a group of one hundred men were sent as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans against Ptolemy XII's restoration, but Ptolemy had their leader (a philosopher named Dion) poisoned and most of the other protesters killed before they reached Rome to plead their desires.

Ptolemy XII finally recovers his throne in 55 BCE by paying Aulus Gabinius ten thousand talents to invade Egypt.

Gabinius's army, sent by Pompey without the consent of the Senate, after defeating the frontier forces of the Egyptian kingdom, proceeds to attack the palace guards but the guards surrenders before a battle commences.

The exact date of Ptolemy XII's restoration is unknown; the earliest possible date of restoration is January 4, 55 BCE and the latest possible date is June 24 the same year.

Ptolemy, upon entering the palace, has his daughter Berenice and her supporters executed.

Around two thousand Roman soldiers and mercenaries, the so-called Gabiniani, are stationed in Alexandria to ensure Ptolemy XII's authority on the throne.

Rome in exchange is able to exert its power over the restored king.

His daughter Cleopatra VII becomes his coregent.

Roman creditors at the moment of Ptolemy XII's restoration had demanded the return on their investments,  but the Alexandrian treasury could not repay the king's debt.

Learning from previous mistakes, Ptolemy XII shifts popular resentment of tax increases from the king to a Roman, his main creditor Gaius Rabirius Postumus, whom he appoints Dioiketes (minister of finance); Rabirius is thus placed in charge of debt repayment.

Perhaps Aulus Gabinius had also put pressure on Ptolemy XII to appoint Rabirius, who now has direct access to the financial resources of Egypt but exploits the land too much.

The king has to imprison Rabirius to protect his life from the angry people, then arranges his escape to Rome, where, at the end of the year 54 BCE, he is accused under the Lex Julia de repetundis, a law of 59 BCE that restricts the number of 'gifts' that a Governor could receive during his term in a province, and also ensures that governors balanced their accounts before leaving a province.

Defended by Cicero, Rabirius is probably acquitted.