Cassivellaunus

The Great Roman Civil War (49–45 BCE), also known as Caesar's Civil War, one of the last politico-military conflicts in the Roman Republic before the establishment of the Roman Empire, begins as a series of political and military confrontations between Julius Caesar, his political supporters (broadly known as Populares), and his legions, against the Optimates (or Boni), the politically conservative and socially traditionalist faction of the Roman Senate, who are supported by Pompey and his legions.

Caesar is appointed dictator in Rome, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar presides over his own election to a second consulate (with Publius Servilius Vatia as his colleague), then, after eleven days, resigns this dictatorate.

He pursues Pompey to Alexandria, where Pompey is murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of King Ptolemy XIII.

Caesar then becomes involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII.

Caesar sides with Cleopatra, perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which is offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift.

In any event, Caesar withstands the Siege of Alexandria, later defeating the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BCE in the Battle of the Nile and installing Cleopatra as ruler.

Caesar and Cleopatra never marry, as Roman Law only recognizes marriages between two Roman citizens, but he continues his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasts fourteen years—in Roman eyes, this does not constitute adultery—and may have fathered a son called Caesarion.

Cleopatra visits Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.

Caesar had again been appointed Dictator late in 48 BCE, with a term of one year.

After spending the first months of 47 BCE in Egypt, Caesar crosses to Asia, where he annihilates King Pharnaces II of Pontus in the Battle of Zela; his victory is so swift and complete that he mocks Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.

He thence proceeds to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters.

He quickly gains a significant victory at Thapsus in 46 BCE over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who dies in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who commits suicide).

After this victory, Caesar is appointed Dictator for ten years.

The Triumvirate, comprising Casear, Pompey, and Marcus Linius Crassus, had held a conference during the spring of 56 BCE, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone.

The meeting had renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years.

The conquest of the north is soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remain.

Caesar now has a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain.

Caesar crosses into Britain in August 55 with eighty transports and two legions, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year, possibly the Veneti of Brittany.

His intelligence information is poor, and although he gains a beachhead on the coast between Deal and Walmer, where high tides swamp and damage many of his ships, he cannot advance further, and returns to Gaul for the winter, having accomplished little but gaining great publicity.

Caesar launches a more successful attack on Britain the following year, this time bringing five legions and some cavalry in five hundred ships.

Invading inland, he is continually harassed by the southern Britons under Cassivellaunus, who avoids pitched battle.

Caesar is eventually able to use his large force to impose a peace on local tribes, who surrender hostages and promise tribute.

However, poor harvests lead to widespread revolt in Gaul, which forces Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.

Declaring victory, he departs with his hostages.

Britain’s first direct Roman contact had come when the Roman general and future dictator, Julius Caesar, made two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BCE as an offshoot of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons had been helping the Gallic resistance.

The first expedition, more a reconnaissance than a full invasion, had gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but, undermined by storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry, had been unable to advance further.

The expedition had been a military failure but a political success: the Roman Senate had declared a twenty-day public holiday in Rome in honor of this unprecedented achievement.

In his second invasion, Caesar had taken with him a substantially larger force and proceeded to coerce or invite many of the native tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace.

A friendly local king, Mandubracius, had been installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, had been brought to terms.

Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether the tribute agreed was paid by the Britons after Caesar's return to Gaul.

Caesar had conquered no territory but had established clients on the island and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of political influence.