Chandragupta II
ruler of the Gupta empire
375 CE to 415 CE
Chandragupta II The Great, very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya in Sanskrit, is one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire in northern India.
His rule spans c. 380–413/415, during which the Gupta Empire achieves its zenith, art, architecture, and sculpture flourish, and the cultural development of ancient India reaches its climax.
The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty is very often referred to as the Golden Age of India.
Chandragupta II is the son of the previous ruler, Samudragupta the Great.
He attains success by pursuing both a favorable marital alliance and an aggressive expansionist policy in this which his father and grandfather (Chandragupta I) set the precedent.
Samudragupta had set the stage for the emergence of classical art, which occurs under the rule of Chandragupta II.
Chandragupta II gives great support to the arts.
Artists are so highly valued under his rule that they are paid for their work — a rare phenomenon in ancient civilizations.
From 388 to 409, he subjugates Gujarat, the region north of Mumbai, Saurashtra, in western India, and Malwa, with its capital at Ujjain.
Culturally, the reign of Chandragupta II marks a Golden Age.
This is evidenced by later reports of the presence of a circle of poets known as the Nine Gems in his court.
The greatest among them is Kalidasa, who authors numerous immortal pieces of literature including Abhijñānaśākuntalam.
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Samudragupta’s forces have waged more or less continual war against the Shakas (Scythians) based in Ujjain (modern Madhya Pradesh state).
During Samudragupta‘s half-century of rule over northern India, he had expanded his Magadha kingdom west to the borders of the Punjab and east to Assam.
By the time of his death in 380, a dozen kingdoms in the Deccan plateau area had recognized Gupta overlordship.
His second son had already succeeded him around 375 as Chandragupta II; his eldest son Ramagupta, who had succeeded in 370, having been captured by th5949e Western Saka Satraps ("Kshatrapas").
Samudragupta, known to have been a man of culture, had been a patron of learning, a celebrated poet, and a musician.
Several coins depict him playing on the Indian lyre or Veena.
He had also restored the old Vedic practice of the Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice), and, though he had favored the Hindu religion like the other Gupta kings, he was reputed to possess a tolerant spirit vis-a-vis other religions.
A clear illustration of this is the permission granted by him to the king of Ceylon to build a monastery for Buddhist pilgrims in Bodh Gaya.
The Buddhist tradition in India now embraces the Tantric movement and develops the Yogacara school of meditative practices.
India’s Shakta and Tantra cults promote speculation on the mystical origins of divine energy and fertility but the Hindu orthodoxy eschews both trends.
The cult of Vishnu, nourished by the Gupta dynasty, has thrived: it now becomes distinct from that of Shiva.
Upper South Asia (388–531 CE): Gupta Golden Age, Hun Invasions, and Cultural Resilience
Rise and Flourishing of the Gupta Empire
From 388 to 531 CE, Upper South Asia witnessed the height of the Gupta Empire, under rulers such as Chandragupta II (380–415 CE) and Kumaragupta I (415–455 CE). The Gupta period is often termed the "Golden Age" of ancient India, characterized by remarkable developments in arts, sciences, literature, and philosophy. The empire encompassed vast territories including present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and significant parts of Gujarat and Punjab.
Artistic and Cultural Zenith
Gupta patronage fostered a renaissance of classical Indian art, particularly visible in the elaborate temples and sculptures of this period. Iconic examples include the cave temples at Ajanta and Ellora, where exquisite murals depict intricate narratives from Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Gupta artists refined classical Indian aesthetics, establishing artistic standards that influenced subsequent regional styles.
Literary and Scholarly Advancements
This age marked significant literary and scholarly achievements. Renowned scholar Kalidasa composed timeless literary works such as "Shakuntala" and "Meghaduta" during the Gupta period. Additionally, astronomer-mathematician Aryabhata I (476–550 CE) made groundbreaking contributions in mathematics and astronomy, including early concepts of zero and an accurate calculation of pi. Aryabhata's works profoundly influenced mathematics and astronomy across Asia and beyond.
Religious Developments and Hindu Renaissance
Hinduism experienced a revival under Gupta patronage, witnessing the codification and systematization of religious and philosophical traditions. This period saw the composition of influential texts such as the Puranas, which contributed to the formalization of Hindu beliefs and practices. Simultaneously, Buddhism and Jainism continued to receive royal patronage, ensuring their coexistence and mutual enrichment alongside the dominant Brahmanical traditions.
Hun Invasions and Decline
The later years of the Gupta Empire were marked by external invasions, notably from the Central Asian Hunas (Hephthalites). These invasions severely disrupted trade, administration, and cultural patronage. Repeated Hun incursions eroded the political cohesion of the Gupta Empire, leading to its gradual fragmentation into smaller states by the early sixth century.
Regional Powers and Kingdoms
The fragmentation of the Gupta Empire gave rise to several regional powers, including the Maukharis in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Later Guptas, and smaller kingdoms in Gujarat and Punjab. These regional entities maintained continuity in administration and culture despite political upheaval, setting the stage for later regional dynasties.
Himalayan Territories and Indigenous Cultures
In the Himalayan territories, including present-day Nepal, Bhutan, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim, indigenous communities and small principalities continued to flourish. These regions maintained their cultural distinctiveness and political autonomy, periodically interacting with and occasionally influenced by lowland powers such as the Gupta Empire.
Trade and Economic Conditions
Though affected by Hun invasions, trade networks continued to function, linking Northern South Asia with Central Asia, Persia, and the Mediterranean through the Silk Road. Cities like Mathura, Ujjain, and Pataliputra remained significant trade and cultural hubs, sustaining economic resilience even amidst political disruptions.
Legacy of the Age
The age from 388 to 531 CE profoundly shaped the cultural and intellectual landscape of Upper South Asia. Despite political decline due to invasions, the era's artistic, literary, scientific, and religious achievements laid foundations that endured through subsequent centuries, preserving and disseminating a rich heritage that influenced diverse traditions across Asia.
The Classical Age refers to the period when most of North India is reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. CE 320- 550).
Because of the relative peace, law and order, and extensive cultural achievements during this period, it has been described as a "golden age" that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture with all its variety, contradiction, and synthesis.
The golden age is confined to the north, and the classical patterns begin to spread south only after the Gupta Empire has vanished from the historical scene.
The military exploits of the first three rulers—Chandragupta I (ca. 319-335), Samudragupta (ca. 335-376), and Chandragupta II (ca. 376-415)—bring all of North India under their leadership.
From Pataliputra, their capital, they seek to retain political preeminence as much by pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength.
Despite their self-conferred titles, their overlordship is threatened and by 500 ultimately ruined by the Hunas (a branch of the White Huns emanating from Central Asia), who are yet another group in the long succession of ethnically and culturally different outsiders drawn into India, then woven into the hybrid Indian fabric.
The Gupta Dynasty, originating probably in Bengal, had in the beginning of the fourth century established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern-day Uttar Pradesh.
Chandragupta, with a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha and an alliance with the Lichchhavis, had set about expanding his power, conquering much of Magadha, Prayaga and Saketa, and by 320 establishing a realm stretching from the Ganges River to Prayaga, modern-day Allahabad.
His successor Samudragupta had taken the kingdoms of Shichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign, then attacked the tribes in Malwa: the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras.
By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm, his rule extending from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to the Yamuna.
Considered the Napoleon of India, he gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch.
A talented military leader and a great patron of art and literature, he had been succeeded by his son Ramagupta, who had been captured by the Saka Western Satraps ("Kshatrapas") and had soon been succeeded by his brother Chandragupta II, whose greatest victory is over the Shaka-Kshatrapa dynasty and annexation of their kingdom in Gujarat, by defeating their last ruler Rudrasimha III in 395.
The age of classical Sanskrit writings begins under the Guptas; Kalidasa’s dramas and poems epitomize the kavya school’s epic genre.
Known to be an ardent worshiper of Shiva, he writes his plays and poetry largely based around Hindu mythology and philosophy.
His name means, literally, "Kali's servant".
The Vakataka, an Indian dynasty which has ruled parts of today's Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh from the third century, are the most important successor dynasty of the Satavahanas, contemporaneous with the Gupta.
Even Samudragupta (335-380), the great conqueror of the Gupta, seems to have avoided a war with the Vakataka.
The Rudradeva in Samadragupta's victory inscription of Allahabad may be Pravarasena I's son Rudrasena I (330-355).
But from this, Samadragupta would have garnered no lasting success.
Rudrasena I had a son named Prithvisena I (355-380), and Prithvisena I had a son named Rudrasena II.
In the late fourth century, the state seems to have occasionally divided.
Rudrasena II (380-385) had married Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of the Gupta King Chandragupta II (375-413/15) and died after a very short reign in 385 CE, following which Prabhavatigupta rules as a regent on behalf of her two sons, Divakarsena and Damodarsena (Pravarsena II).
During this period the Vakataka realm is practically a part of the Gupta empire, and many historians refer to this period as the Vakataka-Gupta age.
The Gupta empire reaches its political zenith under Chandragupta II, extending far into the Deccan and western India.
A twenty-two-foot- (seven meter-) tall iron pillar represents the remarkable metallurgical advances apparently made under the Gupta dynasty, as the pillar never rusts.
The pillar manufactured by forge welding, is a testament to the high level of skill achieved by ancient Indian iron smiths in the extraction and processing of iron.
The pillar with the statue of Chakra at the top is today at Qutb Minar in Delhi, but its originally location is a place called Vishnupadagiri (meaning “hill with footprint of Lord Vishnu”), identified as modern Udayagiri, situated in the vicinity of Besnagar, Vidisha and Sanchi.
These towns are located about fifty kilometers east of Bhopal, in central India.
There are several aspects to the original site of the pillar at Udayagiri.
Vishnupadagiri is located on the Tropic of Cancer and, therefore, is a center of astronomical studies during the Gupta period.
The Iron Pillar served as a sundial: the early morning shadow of the Iron Pillar falls in the direction of the foot of Anantasayin Vishnu (in one of the panels at Udayagiri) only around the summer solstice (June 21).
The Udayagiri site in general, and the Iron Pillar location in particular, are evidence for the astronomical knowledge that exists in Gupta India.
The pillar bears a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script which states that it was erected as a standard in honor of Lord Vishnu.
It also praises the valor and qualities of a king referred to simply as Chandra, who has been identified with the Gupta King Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375-413).
Mallanaga Vatsyayana is the putative author the "Kamasutra," a Hindu text widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature.
A portion of the work consists of practical advice on sexual intercourse.
It is largely in prose, with many inserted anustubh poetry verses.
"Kāma" means sensual or sexual pleasure, and "sūtra" literally means a thread or line that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual.
Sanskrit dramatist and poet Kalidasa, who flourishes during the reign of Chandragupta II, works in several genres, displaying tremendous originality in each.
He bases all of his court epics on the life of Rama.
His nature poetry reaches its highest expression in the intensely lyrical "Meghaduta" ("Cloud Messenger)", in which a "yaksa" (exiled spirit) employs a passing cloud to send messages to his wife.
Two of his three (extant) plays, the heroic "Vikramorvasiya" ("Vikrama and Urvashi"), and the courtly comedy "Malavikagnimitra" ("Malavika and Agnimitra"), reveal the author's keen sense of humor and characterization.
His most famous play, "Shakuntala," an evocation of an idealized love as a spiritual force, shows his mastery of poetic language.
"Shakuntala," dramatizes part of the "Mahabharata," treating King Dusyanta's love for the hermit girl Shakuntala, their parting, and their eventual reunion.
The Gupta dynasty had assumed control of all the former Kusana territories in the east by 320.
In the reign of Chandragupta's son and successor, Kumaragupta, who reigns from about 415-455, the Huns, or Hunas as they are called in Indian sources, invade from the northwest.
The Allahabad Pillar Inscription mentions the marriage of Chandragupta II with a Naga princess Kuberanaga.
A pillar from Mathura referring to Chandragupta II has recently been dated to 388 CE.
Chandragupta II's daughter, Prabhavatigupta, by his Naga queen Kuberanaga was married to the powerful Vakataka dynasty ruler Rudrasena II (r.380-385 CE).
His greatest victory was his victory over the Shaka-Kshatrapa dynasty and annexation of their kingdom in Gujarat, by defeating their last ruler, Rudrasimha III.
Chandragupta II's son-in-law, the Vakataka ruler Rudrasena II, had died fortuitously after a very short reign in 385 CE, following which Queen Prabhavati Gupta (r. 385-405) ruled the Vakataka kingdom as a regent on behalf of her two sons.
During this twenty-year period the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta empire.
The geographical location of the Vakataka kingdom had allowed Chandragupta II to take the opportunity to defeat the Western Kshatrapas once for all.
Many historians refer to this period as the Vakataka-Gupta Age.
Chandragupta II controls a vast empire, from the mouth of the Ganges to the mouth of the Indus River and from what is now North Pakistan down to the mouth of the Narmada.
Pataliputra continues to be the capital of his huge empire but …