Pompey is supposedly infatuated with his bride.

The personal charms of Julia are remarkable: she is a woman of beauty and virtue; and although policy had prompted her union, and she is twenty-three years younger than her husband, she possesses in Pompey a devoted husband, to whom she is, in return, devotedly attached.

A rumor suggests that the aging conqueror is losing interest in politics in favor of domestic life with his young wife.

In fact, Pompey has been given the governorship of Hispania Ulterior, but has been permitted to remain in Rome to oversee the Roman grain supply as curator annonae, exercising his command through subordinates.

Ptolemy XII Auletes, fearing popular insurrection over the loss of Cyprus, flees in 58 BCE to Rome with his sister Cleopatra VII in search of political and military aid against Berenice's elder sister Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, who has become far too powerful.

He leaves his queen, Cleopatra V Tryphaena, and his eldest daughter, Berenice IV, as regents in Egypt.

Residing at Pompey's villa at Rome, he employs bribery to obtain the support of the Roman senators.

He also arranges the assassination of delegations sent by his opponents from Alexandria, where, following the death of his queen, the people have made Berenice IV sole ruler.

Aulus Gabinius, as praetor in 61, had tried to win public favor by providing games on a scale of unusual splendor, and in 58 manages to secure the consulship, although not without suspicion of bribery.

During his term of office, he aids Publius Clodius Pulcher, the tribune of the plebs, in introducing a law (the Leges Clodiae) threatening exile to anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a trial.

Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, and having had a public falling out with Clodius, is clearly the intended target of the law.

Cicero argues that the senatus consultum ultimum indemnifies him from punishment, and he attempts to gain the support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey, who has become jealous of Cicero's prominence.

Caesar offers to protect Cicero in return for cooperation with the Triumvirate, but Cicero honorably refuses.

When legitimate aid is not forthcoming, Cicero goes into exile, arriving at Thessalonica, Greece, on May 23, 58 BCE.

The day Cicero leaves Italy into exile, Clodius proposes another law that forbids Cicero approaching within four hundred miles (six hundred and forty kilometers) of Italy and confiscates his property.

The bill is passed forthwith, and Cicero's villa on the Palatine is destroyed by Clodius' supporters, as are his villas in Tusculum and Formiae.

Cicero's property is confiscated by order of Clodius, his mall on the Palatine burned down, and its site put up for auction.

It is purchased by Clodius himself, who, not wishing his name to appear in the matter, had had someone else place the bid for him.

Clodius, becoming exhilarated with his power and importance, wastes no time enacting a substantial legislative program.

The Leges Clodiae include setting up a regular dole of free grain, which used to be distributed monthly at variously and heavily discounted prices, but is now to be given away at no charge, thereby increasing Clodius' political status.

Clodius also abolishes the right of taking the omens on a fixed day and (if they were declared unfavorable) of preventing the assembly of the comitia, possessed by every magistrate by the terms of the Lex Aelia Fufia.

He reestablishes the old social and political clubs or guilds of workmen, and the censors are forbidden from excluding any citizen from the Senate or inflicting any punishment upon him unless he has been publicly tried and convicted.

Out of personal hatred for the Lagid king Ptolemy of Cyprus, younger brother of Pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes, he passes a bill terminating his kingship and annexing Cyprus to the Empire.

He cleverly selects Cato the Younger to be sent to Cyprus with a special grant of praetorian command rights to take possession of the island and the royal treasures, and preside over the administrative incorporation of Cyprus into the Roman province of Cilicia.

This measure is planned both to remove Cato, potentially a serious and difficult opponent, from the City for some time (in the event, he is away for more than two years), and to turn him into an advocate for the legitimacy of Clodius' adoption and tribunate, which it also effects, later causing a great deal of friction between Cato and Clodius' bitterest enemies, especially Cicero.

The Great Roman Civil War (49–45 BCE), also known as Caesar's Civil War, one of the last politico-military conflicts in the Roman Republic before the establishment of the Roman Empire, begins as a series of political and military confrontations between Julius Caesar, his political supporters (broadly known as Populares), and his legions, against the Optimates (or Boni), the politically conservative and socially traditionalist faction of the Roman Senate, who are supported by Pompey and his legions.

Caesar is appointed dictator in Rome, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar presides over his own election to a second consulate (with Publius Servilius Vatia as his colleague), then, after eleven days, resigns this dictatorate.

He pursues Pompey to Alexandria, where Pompey is murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of King Ptolemy XIII.

Caesar then becomes involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII.

Caesar sides with Cleopatra, perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which is offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift.

In any event, Caesar withstands the Siege of Alexandria, later defeating the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BCE in the Battle of the Nile and installing Cleopatra as ruler.

Caesar and Cleopatra never marry, as Roman Law only recognizes marriages between two Roman citizens, but he continues his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasts fourteen years—in Roman eyes, this does not constitute adultery—and may have fathered a son called Caesarion.

Cleopatra visits Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.

Caesar had again been appointed Dictator late in 48 BCE, with a term of one year.

After spending the first months of 47 BCE in Egypt, Caesar crosses to Asia, where he annihilates King Pharnaces II of Pontus in the Battle of Zela; his victory is so swift and complete that he mocks Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.

He thence proceeds to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters.

He quickly gains a significant victory at Thapsus in 46 BCE over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who dies in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who commits suicide).

After this victory, Caesar is appointed Dictator for ten years.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (57–46 BCE): Caesar's Civil War and the Collapse of the Republic

The era 57–46 BCE marks one of the most critical periods in the history of the Roman Republic, dominated by the turmoil and transformation brought about by Caesar's Civil War. This conflict, fundamentally political and military, pits Julius Caesar and his supporters—the Populares—against the conservative faction of the Senate—the Optimates—led militarily by Pompey the Great.

Outbreak of Civil War and Caesar’s Dictatorship

The conflict erupts in 49 BCE, after prolonged political tensions between Caesar and the Senate culminate in Caesar’s dramatic crossing of the Rubicon River, symbolically declaring war against Rome itself. Pompey and most senators flee Rome, regrouping in Greece and other parts of the Republic.

In Rome, Caesar rapidly consolidates power, assuming the role of dictator and appointing Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse. After presiding briefly over his election to a second consulate alongside Publius Servilius Vatia, Caesar resigns the dictatorship after eleven days, though retaining supreme authority through military dominance.

Pompey's Defeat and Death in Egypt

Caesar pursues Pompey to Egypt, arriving in Alexandria shortly after Pompey’s assassination at the hands of the court of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar aligns himself with Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy’s sister and rival, becoming embroiled in the Alexandrine civil war. After surviving a challenging siege, Caesar decisively defeats Ptolemy’s forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BCE, establishing Cleopatra firmly as ruler of Egypt.

Despite never marrying due to Roman legal constraints—Roman law only recognizes marriages between Roman citizens—Caesar maintains a significant relationship with Cleopatra, who later visits Rome, residing in Caesar’s villa across the Tiber. Caesar and Cleopatra’s union is historically notable, and Caesar is believed to have fathered a son, Caesarion, with her.

Caesar’s Campaigns and Dictatorship

Caesar’s authority continues to solidify. After his victory in Egypt, he swiftly moves to Asia Minor, defeating King Pharnaces II of Pontus at the Battle of Zela with remarkable speed, famously summarized by his phrase, "Veni, vidi, vici" ("I came, I saw, I conquered").

Returning westward, Caesar decisively confronts and defeats the last remnants of Pompey’s senatorial allies at the Battle of Thapsus in Africa in 46 BCE, where key opponents such as Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger perish—Scipio in battle and Cato by suicide.

Following Thapsus, Caesar is appointed dictator for ten years, securing unprecedented control over the Roman Republic, effectively signaling the Republic's transition into a period of singular authority.

Expansion and Colonization

Meanwhile, Roman colonization efforts continue. Como, situated in the Lombardy region of northern Italy near Lake Como and historically inhabited by the Celtic Orobii tribe, becomes a Roman colony during this period, indicative of Rome’s continuing expansion and consolidation of its northern territories.

Legacy of the Era

The period 57–46 BCE profoundly reshapes the Roman Republic. Caesar’s victories not only eradicate the immediate political and military opposition but also lay the foundation for a fundamental transformation of Roman governance. Caesar’s ascendance and extended dictatorship directly precipitate the demise of the Republic, paving the way for imperial rule and permanently altering Rome’s historical trajectory.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (57–46 BCE): Caesar's Civil War and the Collapse of the Republic

The era 57–46 BCE marks one of the most critical periods in the history of the Roman Republic, dominated by the turmoil and transformation brought about by Caesar's Civil War. This conflict, fundamentally political and military, pits Julius Caesar and his supporters—the Populares—against the conservative faction of the Senate—the Optimates—led militarily by Pompey the Great.

Outbreak of Civil War and Caesar’s Dictatorship

The conflict erupts in 49 BCE, after prolonged political tensions between Caesar and the Senate culminate in Caesar’s dramatic crossing of the Rubicon River, symbolically declaring war against Rome itself. Pompey and most senators flee Rome, regrouping in Greece and other parts of the Republic.

In Rome, Caesar rapidly consolidates power, assuming the role of dictator and appointing Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse. After presiding briefly over his election to a second consulate alongside Publius Servilius Vatia, Caesar resigns the dictatorship after eleven days, though retaining supreme authority through military dominance.

Pompey's Defeat and Death in Egypt

Caesar pursues Pompey to Egypt, arriving in Alexandria shortly after Pompey’s assassination at the hands of the court of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar aligns himself with Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy’s sister and rival, becoming embroiled in the Alexandrine civil war. After surviving a challenging siege, Caesar decisively defeats Ptolemy’s forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BCE, establishing Cleopatra firmly as ruler of Egypt.

Despite never marrying due to Roman legal constraints—Roman law only recognizes marriages between Roman citizens—Caesar maintains a significant relationship with Cleopatra, who later visits Rome, residing in Caesar’s villa across the Tiber. Caesar and Cleopatra’s union is historically notable, and Caesar is believed to have fathered a son, Caesarion, with her.

Caesar’s Campaigns and Dictatorship

Caesar’s authority continues to solidify. After his victory in Egypt, he swiftly moves to Asia Minor, defeating King Pharnaces II of Pontus at the Battle of Zela with remarkable speed, famously summarized by his phrase, "Veni, vidi, vici" ("I came, I saw, I conquered").

Returning westward, Caesar decisively confronts and defeats the last remnants of Pompey’s senatorial allies at the Battle of Thapsus in Africa in 46 BCE, where key opponents such as Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger perish—Scipio in battle and Cato by suicide.

Following Thapsus, Caesar is appointed dictator for ten years, securing unprecedented control over the Roman Republic, effectively signaling the Republic's transition into a period of singular authority.

Expansion and Colonization

Meanwhile, Roman colonization efforts continue. Como, situated in the Lombardy region of northern Italy near Lake Como and historically inhabited by the Celtic Orobii tribe, becomes a Roman colony during this period, indicative of Rome’s continuing expansion and consolidation of its northern territories.

Legacy of the Era

The period 57–46 BCE profoundly reshapes the Roman Republic. Caesar’s victories not only eradicate the immediate political and military opposition but also lay the foundation for a fundamental transformation of Roman governance. Caesar’s ascendance and extended dictatorship directly precipitate the demise of the Republic, paving the way for imperial rule and permanently altering Rome’s historical trajectory.

Julius Caesar, having in 58 BCE initiated the conquest of Gaul, has been equally busy in preserving and improving his position at home, using part of his growing wealth from Gallic loot to hire political agents in Rome.

Marcus Linius Crassus, soon slighted by Caesar and Pompey, becomes the odd man out in the Triumvirate.

Pompey, meanwhile, has become jealous over Caesar's success in Gaul.

Clodius Pulcher, an innovative urban politician who as Tribune in 58 had passed many reforms, had soon overplayed his hand at Rome.

When Clodius turns on Pompey, Pompey defends himself by supporting Cicero's recall from exile after the intervention of recently elected tribune Titus Annius Milo.Clodius, casting cast the single vote against the decree, resorts to force to prevent the passing of the decree.

His effort is foiled by Milo, who leads an armed gang sufficiently strong to hold him in check.

Cicero returns to Italy on August 5, 57 BCE, landing at Brundisium, where he is greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia.

Clodius subsequently attacks the workmen who are rebuilding Cicero's house at public cost, assaults Cicero himself in the street, and sets fire to the house of Cicero's younger brother Q. Tullius Cicero.

Cicero, once back in Rome, steps back into his role as Pompey's defender and Clodius' antagonist, but Pompey himself retreats to his lovely young wife and his theater plans; such behavior is not expected of the once dazzling young general.

Pompey might equally have been obsessed, exhausted and frustrated.

His own party has not forgiven him for allowing Cicero's expulsion.

Some try to persuade him that Crassus is plotting his assassination.

Caesar meanwhile seems set on outstripping both his colleagues in generalship and popularity.

Ptolemy XII Auletes, the recently deposed Macedonian ruler of Hellenistic Egypt, continues to reside at Pompey's villa at Rome and to dispense bribes to senators with the aim of securing military aid from the Senate.

He falls deeper into debt to Roman moneylenders.

The Senate late in 57 passes a resolution to support Ptolemy, but when a prophecy forbids the granting of active aid, the king departs for Ephesus in Asia Minor.

Ptolemy XII in 58 BCE had failed to comment on the Roman conquest of Cyprus, a territory ruled by his brother, thereby upsetting the Egyptian population to start a rebellion.

Egyptians were already aggravated by heavy taxes (to pay for the Roman bribes) and a substantial increase in the cost of living.

Ptolemy had fled to Rome, possibly with his daughter Cleopatra VII, in search of safety.

His daughter Berenice IV became his successor, ruling as coregent with her sister (or possibly mother) Cleopatra VI Tryphaena.

A year after Ptolemy XII's exile, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena died; Berenice from 57 to 56 has ruled alone over Alexandria.

Ptolemy XII has prosecuted his restitution from Rome but has met opposition with certain members of the Senate.

His old ally Pompey had housed the exiled king and his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemy's restoration in the Senate.

During this time, Roman creditors realize that they will not get the return on their loans to the Egyptian king without his restoration.

Pressure in 57 BCE from the Roman public had thus forced the Senate's decision to restore Ptolemy.

Rome does not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king, however, as the Sibylline books state that if an Egyptian king asks for help and Rome proceeds with military intervention, great dangers and difficulties will occur.

Egyptians have heard rumors of Rome's possible intervention and dislike the idea of their exiled king's return.

Cassius Dio reports that a group of one hundred men were sent as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans against Ptolemy XII's restoration, but Ptolemy had their leader (a philosopher named Dion) poisoned and most of the other protesters killed before they reached Rome to plead their desires.

Ptolemy XII finally recovers his throne in 55 BCE by paying Aulus Gabinius ten thousand talents to invade Egypt.

Gabinius's army, sent by Pompey without the consent of the Senate, after defeating the frontier forces of the Egyptian kingdom, proceeds to attack the palace guards but the guards surrenders before a battle commences.

The exact date of Ptolemy XII's restoration is unknown; the earliest possible date of restoration is January 4, 55 BCE and the latest possible date is June 24 the same year.

Ptolemy, upon entering the palace, has his daughter Berenice and her supporters executed.

Around two thousand Roman soldiers and mercenaries, the so-called Gabiniani, are stationed in Alexandria to ensure Ptolemy XII's authority on the throne.

Rome in exchange is able to exert its power over the restored king.

His daughter Cleopatra VII becomes his coregent.

Roman creditors at the moment of Ptolemy XII's restoration had demanded the return on their investments,  but the Alexandrian treasury could not repay the king's debt.

Learning from previous mistakes, Ptolemy XII shifts popular resentment of tax increases from the king to a Roman, his main creditor Gaius Rabirius Postumus, whom he appoints Dioiketes (minister of finance); Rabirius is thus placed in charge of debt repayment.

Perhaps Aulus Gabinius had also put pressure on Ptolemy XII to appoint Rabirius, who now has direct access to the financial resources of Egypt but exploits the land too much.

The king has to imprison Rabirius to protect his life from the angry people, then arranges his escape to Rome, where, at the end of the year 54 BCE, he is accused under the Lex Julia de repetundis, a law of 59 BCE that restricts the number of 'gifts' that a Governor could receive during his term in a province, and also ensures that governors balanced their accounts before leaving a province.

Defended by Cicero, Rabirius is probably acquitted.

Ptolemy IX Soter had refused to give aid to the Romans in the course of their war with Pontus, but after the Roman sack of Athens in 86, the Egyptian rulers had helped rebuild the city, for which commemorative statues of them are erected.

The Odeum is rebuilt through the generosity of King Ariobarzanes of Cappadocia.

Ptolemy XII had chosen his daughter Cleopatra VII as his coregent before his death in 51.

He declares in his will that she and her brother Ptolemy XIII should rule the kingdom together.

To safeguard his interests, he has made the people of Rome executors of his will.

The Senate is busy with its own affairs, so Pompey (as Ptolemy XII's ally) approves the will, and the eighteen-year-old Cleopatra VII becomes joint ruler with her eleven-year old-brother.