Margaret is working toward a union of Sweden with Denmark and Norway by having Olaf elected to the Swedish throne.

She is on the verge of achieving this goal when Olaf II/IV suddenly dies.

However, Denmark makes Margaret temporary ruler upon the death of Olaf.

Norway follows suit and crowns Margaret on February 2, 1388.

Queen Margaret knows that her power will be more secure if she is able to find a king to rule in her place.

She settles on Eric of Pomerania, grandson of her sister.

At an all-Scandinavian meeting held at Kalmar, Erik of Pomerania is therefore crowned king of all three Scandinavian countries.

Royal politics thus result in personal unions between the Nordic countries, eventually bringing the thrones of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden under the control of Queen Margaret when the country enters into the Kalmar Union.

North Europe (1396–1539 CE)

Kalmar Union, Hanseatic Hubs, and Tudor Beginnings

Geography & Environmental Context

North Europe stretched from the Baltic to the North Atlantic, encompassing the forested and maritime worlds of Scandinavia, the Baltic states, and the British–Irish archipelago.
Northeast Europe—Sweden, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, eastern Denmark, and eastern Norway—formed the heart of the Baltic world, where forests, lakes, and grain plains fed into Hanseatic trade.
Northwest Europe—England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Iceland, the Faroes, and the Atlantic coasts of Norway and Denmark—looked westward toward fisheries and emerging Atlantic routes. Together, they linked the inland forests and plains to the open seas that defined early modern northern power.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age deepened winter severity and shortened growing seasons.

• Baltic region: Long freezes closed harbors; floods and late thaws alternated with droughts in interior plains.

• Scandinavia & Finland: Harvests shrank; forests and fisheries provided crucial fallback resources.

• North Atlantic fringe: Harsher storms and sea-ice reached further south, disrupting cod and herring cycles but enriching fisheries in better years.

• Britain & Ireland: Cooler, wetter decades challenged crops but spared maritime trade, as fisheries and livestock compensated for shortfalls.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Baltic lands: Rye, barley, and oats dominated; forests yielded furs, timber, tar, and honey; iron mining in Bergslagen (Sweden) expanded.

• Scandinavia & Denmark: Mixed grain and stock herding supported towns like Stockholm, Oslo, and Copenhagen.

• British Isles: England’s open fields produced wheat, rye, and barley; uplands in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland focused on oats, grazing, and dairying; peat and woodland provided vital fuel.

• Iceland & Faroes: Dependent on sheep, fish, and seabirds, exporting dried cod and wool to Bergen and Hanseatic merchants.
  Urban growth centered on London, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Riga, and Tallinn—ports uniting inland grain and iron with sea commerce.

Technology & Material Culture

• Agriculture: Wooden plows, iron blades, and watermills; three-field rotations in Baltic plains and open-field farming in England.

• Maritime: Cogs, hulks, and evolving caravels carried timber, grain, and fish; clinker-built vessels remained common in fjords and islands.

• Industry: Swedish ironworks, English cloth finishing, and Hanseatic shipyards drove regional exchange.

• Architecture: Brick Gothic churches and fortresses in the Baltic; Perpendicular Gothic cathedrals in England; stave-church legacies in Norway; fortified tower houses in Ireland and Scotland.

• Print & craft: Printing spread to London, Paris, Copenhagen, and Stockholm after 1476, fostering literacy and trade in books.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Hanseatic League: From Lübeck to Riga and Tallinn, Baltic trade moved furs, tar, wax, and grain outward, bringing textiles, salt, and wine inward.

• Kalmar Union (1397): United Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under one monarch; internal rebellion and civil wars foreshadowed its collapse.

• Lithuania & Poland: The Polish–Lithuanian union (1386) extended from the Baltic to the steppe, linking Europe to Muscovy’s frontier.

• British & Irish seas: Wool, cloth, and salt fish moved between London, Dublin, Bristol, Edinburgh, and continental ports.

• Atlantic ventures: Bristol merchants probed western seas; John Cabot’s voyage (1497) revealed the cod-rich coasts of Newfoundland.

• Scandinavian routes: Bergen’s Hanse convoys and Jutland’s cattle exports tied the Atlantic rim to the Baltic core.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Faith & reform: Catholic orthodoxy prevailed, though reformist ideas spread via universities and trade. The Lutheran Reformation took root first in Sweden (under Gustav Vasa, 1520s) and Denmark–Norway (after 1536).

• Literature & learning: Swedish and Danish chronicles, Gaelic bardic poetry, Icelandic sagas, and English and Scots verse (e.g., Dunbar, Henryson) flourished.

• Urban culture: Baltic guilds sponsored altarpieces and public art; English confraternities built hospitals and chapels; Hanseatic merchants endowed churches across ports.

• Law & monarchy: English common law matured; Scottish and Danish kings strengthened bureaucracies; Gaelic Brehon law persisted in Ireland.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Diversified subsistence: Grain shortages offset by fishing, forestry, and livestock.

• Storage & trade: Hanseatic and English granaries redistributed food in famine years.

• Construction: Log and turf houses insulated against cold; seawalls and dikes secured coasts.

• Mobility: Transhumance, timber floating, and coastal shipping ensured resource flow across fragmented geographies.

Technology & Power Shifts (Conflict Dynamics)

• Scandinavia:

  • Kalmar Union revolts (1430s–1520s) led to Sweden’s independence under Gustav Vasa (1523) and the start of Lutheran reform.

  • Denmark–Norway retained the Atlantic isles; the Count’s Feud (1534–1536) ended with royal consolidation and Protestant victory.

• Baltic & Steppe:

  • The Livonian Order ruled Estonia and Latvia under Hanseatic influence, declining under pressure from Muscovy.

  • Lithuania fought Moscow’s expansion, maintaining autonomy in the Polish–Lithuanian commonwealth.

  • Teutonic Prussia weakened after Tannenberg (1410), becoming a Polish fief.

• British Isles:

  • The Hundred Years’ War’s close (1453) redirected England inward.

  • Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) culminated in Tudor rule under Henry VII.

  • Flodden (1513) crushed Scottish arms; Ireland remained divided between the English Pale and Gaelic lordships.

• Maritime shifts: Naval gunnery, enclosed shipyards, and state fleets emerged, notably under the Tudors and Danes, signaling northern Europe’s coming naval ascendancy.

Transition (to 1539 CE)

By 1539, North Europe stood divided yet ascendant:
The Hanseatic League waned but its maritime legacy endured; Sweden and Denmark–Norway entered the Protestant era; Lithuania faced the growing might of Muscovy; and the British Isles, stabilized under the Tudors, turned toward the Atlantic.
Iceland and the Faroes remained fishing outposts; the Baltic still pulsed with trade in grain, tar, and timber. Across forests, fjords, and sea-lanes, resilience under cold skies forged the region’s next transformation—from medieval borderlands to early modern maritime powers.

Northeast Europe (1396–1539 CE): Kalmar Union, Hanseatic Hubs, and Baltic Frontiers

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of Northeast Europe includes Sweden, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, eastern Denmark (with Copenhagen), eastern Norway (with Oslo), and the Kaliningrad enclave. Anchors spanned the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland, the Bothnian Gulf, the Scandinavian lake–forest interior, and the Lithuanian–Livonian plains. Forests, lakes, and rivers fed into the Baltic maritime corridor, while upland pastures, iron-bearing districts, and fishing zones shaped inland economies.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age deepened seasonal extremes.

• Winters: longer freezes locked harbors and rivers, delaying trade;

• Summers: shorter, sometimes wet, affecting grain harvests in Sweden, Finland, and Livonia;

• Forests & lakes: supplied furs, timber, and fish to buffer poor grain years.
  Sea ice spread widely in severe winters, but milder decades allowed sustained shipping across the Baltic.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Scandinavia (Sweden, Finland, Norway east): Rye, barley, oats, and peas were staples; fishing and stock herding were critical supplements; iron mining grew in Bergslagen (Sweden).

• Denmark (eastern provinces): Grain, dairy, and fishing supported Copenhagen, an emerging royal hub.

• Baltic states (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia): Cereal farming (rye, barley), cattle herding, flax, and honey; coastal towns drew supplies from inland peasants.

• Kaliningrad (Prussian coast): Mixed farming with rye and livestock; amber collecting continued.

Technology & Material Culture

• Agriculture: wooden plows, iron-tipped tools, watermills; three-field rotations in Baltic plains.

• Mining & craft: Swedish ironworks expanded, producing bars for Hanseatic trade.

• Maritime: cogs and hulks carried timber, tar, grain, and iron; Danish and Swedish shipwrights innovated in response to naval rivalries.

• Architecture & art: Brick Gothic churches, Hanseatic warehouses, and castle fortresses (Tallinn, Riga, Stockholm, Vilnius); altarpieces and icon painting reflected Catholic and Orthodox patronage.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Hanseatic League: Lübeck, Tallinn, Riga, and Stockholm tied the region into North Sea–Baltic trade; furs, timber, wax, and grain moved outward, textiles and salt inward.

• Kalmar Union (1397): Linked Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under one crown; tensions between Danish monarchs and Swedish nobility fueled civil wars.

• Lithuania: Stretched from Baltic to Black Sea; in union with Poland (from 1386) but retained distinct identity; trade routes through Vilnius connected to Muscovy.

• Livonian Order: German knights ruled Estonia and Latvia, defending ports while exploiting peasantry.

• Novgorod & Muscovy: Baltic trade drew in Russian fur and wax via Novgorod until its annexation by Moscow in 1478.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Catholicism: Dominant in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Baltic towns; monasteries, cathedrals, and feast calendars organized social life.

• Orthodoxy: Endured in eastern Lithuania and among Russian enclaves; Pskov and Novgorod influenced nearby Baltic cultures.

• Local traditions: Folk epics, runo-songs, and sagas persisted in Finland and Karelia; seasonal rites tied to agriculture and fishing.

• Art & letters: Lithuania fostered chronicles; Swedish and Danish courts commissioned sagas and chronicles; German-language urban culture dominated Hanseatic towns.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Grain storage: Granaries and trade surpluses in Lübeck and Riga redistributed food in famine.

• Diversification: Fishing, forestry, hunting, and livestock offset poor harvests.

• Architecture: Log houses and turf-roofed structures insulated against cold; fortified towns stored supplies.

• Mobility: Seasonal herding, timber floating, and coastal shipping buffered communities against local scarcity.

Technology & Power Shifts (Conflict Dynamics)

• Kalmar Union: Swedish nobles resisted Danish dominance; Engelbrekt rebellion (1430s) and wars in the late 15th century destabilized the union.

• Sweden: Broke definitively from Denmark in 1523 under Gustav Vasa, founding a hereditary monarchy and initiating the Lutheran Reformation.

• Norway: Remained bound to Denmark until the 19th century, with Oslo as an eastern hub.

• Lithuania: Fought Muscovy on its eastern frontier; preserved autonomy in the Polish–Lithuanian union.

• Livonian Order: Contested with Russians and Lithuanians; relied on Hanseatic allies for survival.

• Kaliningrad coast (Prussia): Under Teutonic Knights, weakened after defeat at Tannenberg/Grunwald (1410), shifting toward Polish suzerainty.

Transition

By 1539 CE, Northeast Europe was fractured but dynamic: the Kalmar Union was collapsing, Sweden independent under Gustav Vasa and entering Lutheran reform; Lithuania remained powerful but pressured by Muscovy; Livonia survived precariously between neighbors; Hanseatic ports still dominated Baltic trade, though in decline. Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant frontiers overlapped across the region, foreshadowing wars of confession and imperial competition.

Margaret’s successor, Eric of Pomerania (King of Denmark from 1412 to 1439), lacks Margaret's skill and thus directly causes the breakup of the Kalmar Union.

Eric's foreign policy engulfs Denmark in a succession of wars with the Holstein counts and the city of Lübeck.

When the Hanseatic League imposes a trade embargo on Scandinavia, the Swedes (who see their mining industry adversely affected) rise up in revolt.

The three countries of the Kalmar Union all declare Eric deposed in 1439.

However, support for the idea of regionalism continues, so when Eric's nephew Christopher of Bavaria comes to the throne in 1440, he manages to get himself elected in all three kingdoms, briefly reuniting Scandinavia (1442–1448).

The Swedish nobility grows increasingly unhappy with Danish rule and the union soon becomes merely a legal concept with little practical application.

During the subsequent reigns of Christian I (1450–1481) and Hans (1481–1513), tensions grow, and several wars between Sweden and Denmark erupt.

The Swedish king Albert of Mecklenburg had been the next in line of succession to the throne of Norway at the death, without issue, of Olaf, King of Norway and Denmark, in 1387, but the Norwegian nobility resents him.

Denmark was an elected kingdom, with no clear candidates to the throne.

Olaf's mother, Queen Margaret of Norway, had had herself elected regent of both Denmark and Norway.

It had been decided in Norway that the inheritance to the throne was to be reckoned from her.

Young Bogislaw, son to her sister, the only surviving granddaughter of Valdemar IV of Denmark and also a descendant of Magnus I of Sweden and Haakon V of Norway, had in 1389 come to Denmark to be brought up by Margaret, who changed his name to the more Nordic-sounding Erik, or Eric.

Eric of Pomerania, as he had come to be called, had been hailed on September 8 of that year as King of Norway at the thing of Eyrathing in Trondheim.

He may have been crowned King of Norway in Oslo in 1392, but this is disputed.

He is in 1396 hailed as king in Denmark and then in Sweden.

Queen Margaret of Denmark joins Sweden, Denmark, and Norway into a single realm under her grandnephew, Eric of Pomerania, by the Treaty of Kalmar, signed on June 17, 1397, in the Swedish castle of Kalmar, on Sweden's southeast coast.

The eternal union stipulates that the Swedish crown shall remain elective and that each country shall retain its own laws and customs.

Although Eric is crowned monarch of all three kingdoms as Erik VII, he remains merely a figurehead for his powerful grandmother, who has dominated Scandinavian affairs, quelled internal violence in Sweden, expanded the royal domain, brought the dukes of Schleswig and Holstein in line, patronized religious institutions, and fostered Danish influence. (The Union of Kalmar, which will last nearly throughout the age, will in fact never formally be dissolved—some argue that its conception was never actually ratified, either. It has been doubted that several of the signatories were personally present—for example, the entire Norwegian "delegation"—and it has been argued that the Treaty was only a draft document. Norway and her overseas dependencies, however, will continue to remain a part of the realm of Denmark-Norway under the Oldenburg dynasty for several centuries after the dissolution.)

Queen Margaret had entered into negotiations with King Henry IV of England in 1402 about the possibility of an alliance between the Kingdom of England and the Nordic union.

The proposal had been for a double wedding, whereby Eric would marry Henry's daughter, Philippa, and Henry's son, the Prince of Wales and future King Henry V, would marry Eric's sister, Catherine.

The English side wants these weddings to seal an offensive alliance between the Nordic kingdoms and England, which could lead to the involvement of the Nordic union on the English side in the ongoing Hundred Years' War against the Kingdom of France.

Margaret, having thus far led a consistent foreign policy of not getting entangled in binding alliances and foreign wars, rejects the English proposals.

The double wedding never comes off, but successful negotiations result in Eric's wedding to the thirteen-year-old Philippa at Lund on October 26, 1406, in tandem with by a purely defensive alliance with England.

Northeast Europe (1408–1419 CE): Decisive Conflicts, Kalmar Unity, and the Lithuanian-Polish Triumph

Introduction

Between 1408 and 1419 CE, Northeast Europe entered a period of intense geopolitical and military confrontation, prominently featuring the culmination of conflicts between the Teutonic Knights and the Polish-Lithuanian Union. Simultaneously, the Kalmar Union solidified internal cohesion under Eric of Pomerania, stabilizing the Scandinavian political landscape. These years saw decisive battles, diplomatic realignments, and significant shifts in regional power dynamics.

The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War (1409–1411)

The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War, also known as the Great War, erupted between 1409 and 1411, sparked by a local Samogitian uprising and subsequent Teutonic invasion of Poland in August 1409. Neither side was fully prepared for prolonged conflict, prompting Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, to broker a nine-month truce. After the truce expired in June 1410, the conflict culminated in the decisive Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg), one of medieval Europe's largest engagements. Most of the Teutonic leadership, including Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen, were either killed or captured.

Despite this crushing defeat, the Teutonic Knights successfully resisted a siege on their capital, Marienburg (Malbork), ultimately sustaining only minor territorial concessions in the Peace of Thorn (1411). Nevertheless, the war left the Order significantly weakened, financially burdened by war reparations, and plagued by internal conflict and economic decline. Territorial disputes persisted until the Peace of Melno (1422), but the Order never fully recovered its previous power, allowing the Polish–Lithuanian Union to emerge as the dominant regional power.

The Hunger War of 1414

In 1414, tensions resurfaced with the outbreak of the Hunger War (Famine War), a brief conflict driven by unresolved territorial disputes. Characterized by destructive scorched-earth tactics, the war concluded without major political outcomes but severely impacted the population. Famine and plague ravaged Prussia, further crippling the Teutonic Order. Chronicler Johann von Posilge reported that eighty-six knights of the Teutonic Order perished from plague in the war’s aftermath, a heavy toll compared to the approximately four hundred knights who had fallen at Grunwald.

Stability and Prosperity within the Kalmar Union

The Kalmar Union, under King Eric of Pomerania, strengthened its political and administrative structures during this period. Stability and centralized authority improved governance across the member kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, enhancing economic coordination, maritime trade, and internal peace.

Danish-controlled Estonia, administered from Reval (Tallinn) and centered around the fortress of Castrum Danorum atop Toompea Hill, remained relatively stable and economically prosperous, benefiting from improved maritime trade routes and strengthened fortifications.

Livonian Confederation's Adjustments

The Livonian Confederation, with its administrative center in Riga, adjusted strategically to the changing regional power dynamics. The Confederation strengthened diplomatic ties, improved its defensive capabilities, and maintained robust commercial networks, thereby ensuring internal stability and continued regional significance despite upheavals experienced by its Prussian counterparts.

Swedish Control and Finnish Integration

Within the framework of the broader Kalmar Union, Sweden further integrated Finland politically, culturally, and economically. Southern Finnish territories saw the reinforcement of defensive fortifications, expanded ecclesiastical influence, and strengthened administrative structures, solidifying their distinct alignment with Swedish governance.

Economic and Urban Growth

Economic prosperity advanced substantially during this era. Major cities, notably Reval (Tallinn), Riga, Königsberg, and Visby on the island of Gotland, thrived as commercial and cultural hubs. Maritime commerce flourished, linking Northeast Europe with broader European markets, and enhancing economic stability throughout the region.

Ecclesiastical Influence and Cultural Integration

Ecclesiastical institutions, particularly the influential Teutonic Order and local bishoprics, remained significant agents of social stability, education, and cultural integration. Monastic establishments played critical roles in fostering Latin Christian identity, shaping educational structures, and promoting regional cohesion amidst geopolitical upheavals.

Heightened Regional Geopolitical Complexity

The dramatic reshuffling of power post-Grunwald significantly reshaped regional alliances and diplomatic strategies. Continued tensions between the Lithuanian-Polish Union and the weakened Teutonic Order, coupled with the Kalmar Union's consolidation, resulted in an era of strategic complexity characterized by shifting alliances and careful diplomatic maneuvering.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1408 to 1419 CE marked a turning point in Northeast European history, underscored by the Lithuanian-Polish victory at Grunwald, the decline of Teutonic authority, and reinforced stability under the Kalmar Union. These critical events and transformations profoundly influenced regional politics, territorial boundaries, and cultural identities, shaping Northeast Europe's historical trajectory for centuries to follow.

Northwest Europe (1408–1419 CE): Consolidation of Power and Continued Strife

England: Rebellions, Religion, and Regal Challenges

The reign of Henry IV continued to be marked by internal instability and rebellion. The Glyndŵr Rising, initiated in 1400 by the Welsh leader Owain Glyndŵr, persisted until approximately 1415, highlighting sustained Welsh resistance to English hegemony. Henry's reign was further troubled by repeated attempts to suppress religious dissent, primarily aimed at the Lollards, followers of the reformist doctrines of John Wycliffe. The intense persecution peaked with the burning of John Badby in 1410, making him one of the first laymen executed for heresy in England. Upon Henry IV’s death in 1413, his son ascended as Henry V, ushering in renewed English ambitions, particularly against France.

Henry V quickly asserted his authority and re-energized English claims in France, reigniting the longstanding conflict known as the Hundred Years' War. His decisive victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, despite being vastly outnumbered, became emblematic of English valor and military effectiveness, significantly bolstering his reputation and uniting his kingdom under a common cause.

Scotland: Power Struggles and Captivity

In Scotland, power continued to be contested internally amid external threats from England. Following Robert III’s death in 1406, his young son James I remained captive in English hands, held prisoner from 1406 to 1424. The regency was dominated by the Duke of Albany, who effectively ruled Scotland but faced constant political maneuvering and efforts to maintain authority amidst nobility rivalries and border disputes with England.

Ireland: Strengthening Gaelic Dominance

Ireland saw further erosion of Anglo-Norman control, with Gaelic clans such as the O’Neills and O’Briens consolidating their authority and extending their power bases. The English presence was increasingly confined to The Pale, with attempts at military intervention proving ineffectual against the resurgence of Gaelic traditions, customs, and independent rule.

Scandinavia: Stabilization of the Kalmar Union

Under Queen Margaret I and subsequently King Eric of Pomerania, the Kalmar Union strengthened its governance structures. Eric, crowned in 1397, continued Margaret's centralization policies, although Sweden periodically expressed resistance against the union's dominance. Still, by 1419, the Union remained intact, stabilizing northern European political dynamics despite underlying tensions.

Iceland: Continuation of Literary and Cultural Identity

Iceland, although politically subordinated within the Kalmar Union, preserved and continued its vibrant literary culture. Notable Icelandic sagas, poetry, and historical chronicles persisted as important cultural staples, underscoring Icelandic resilience and contributing to a distinct national identity that endured despite political subjugation.

Cultural Flourishing and Architectural Advances

Cultural and architectural advancements continued robustly across Northwest Europe. The ongoing construction of York Minster exemplified the era’s architectural brilliance, showcasing the Perpendicular Gothic style with its large windows and intricate tracery, reflecting both ecclesiastical power and artistic ambition. Musically, the era remained distinguished by the innovative compositions of John Dunstaple and Leonel Power, whose works influenced harmonic developments throughout Europe.

Legacy of the Era

By 1419 CE, Northwest Europe had entered a phase marked by both internal stabilization and external expansion. England, reinvigorated by Henry V's victories, sought renewed continental dominance, Scotland endured dynastic uncertainty, Gaelic Ireland fortified its independent traditions, and the Kalmar Union consolidated northern European influence. These dynamics, combined with continued cultural and architectural achievements, signaled the era as pivotal in shaping the region's subsequent historical trajectory.

Eric of Pomerania, King of the Nordic Kalmar Union, seizes the duchy of Schleswig in 1409 in a dispute over the Count of Holstein’s possession of it.

A desperate Holstein had opened its ports to the pirates known as the Victualling Brothers, who had eventually compelled Eric to withdraw from Schleswig.

Eric had continued to lose battles and territory to the Holsteiners and their pirate allies during 1416-18, but a series of bloody engagements in 1419 win him control of Fehmarn Island.