Gabriel Bethlen

The religious wars continue after the Czech defeat.

The Thirty Years' War (1618-48) of the German Protestant princes against the Holy Roman Emperor involves foreign powers and extends beyond German territory.

Czechs fight on all sides: most of the rebellious Czech generals join Protestant armies; Albrecht of Wallenstein is the most prominent Czech defector to the imperial cause.

Bohemia serves as a battlefield throughout the war.

Prince Bethlen Gabor's Hungarian forces, reinforced by Turkish mercenaries, fight against the emperor and periodically devastate Slovakia and Moravia.

Protestant German armies and, later, Danish and Swedish armies, lay waste the Czech provinces.

Cities, villages, and castle fortresses are destroyed.

Lusatia is incorporated into Saxony in 1635.

The Thirty Years' War ends during the reign of Ferdinand III (1637-56).

In 1648 the Treaty of Westphalia confirms the incorporation of the Bohemian Kingdom into the Habsburg imperial system, which establishes its seat in Vienna.

The Habsburgs had in 1591 invaded Transylvania under George Basta, who persecutes Protestants and expropriates estates illegally until Istvan Bocskay, a former Habsburg supporter, musters an army that expels Basta's forces in 1604-05.

In 1606 Bocskay concludes the Peace of Vienna with the Habsburgs and the Peace of Zsitvatorok with the Turks.

The treaties secure his position as prince of Transylvania, guarantee rights for Royal Hungary's Protestants, broaden Transylvania's independence, and free the emperor of his obligation to pay tribute to the Ottomans.

After Bocskay's death, the Ottomans compel the Transylvanians to accept Gabor Bethlen as prince.

Transylvania prospers under Bethlen's enlightened despotism.

He stimulates agriculture, trade, and industry; sinks new mines; sends students to Protestant universities abroad; and prohibits landlords from barring children of serfs from an education.

Unfortunately, when Bethlen dies in 1629, the Transylvanian Diet abolishes most of his reforms.

After a short succession struggle, Gyorgy Rakoczi I (1648-60) becomes prince.

Under Rakoczi, Transylvania fights with the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) and is mentioned as a sovereign state in the Peace of Westphalia.

Transylvania's golden age ends after Gyorgy Rakoczi II (1648-60) launches an attack on Poland without the prior approval of the Ottomans or Transylvania's Diet.

The campaign is a disaster, and the Turks use the opportunity to rout Rakoczi's army and take control of Transylvania.

Basta's army in Transylvania persecutes Protestants and illegally expropriates their estates until Stephen Bocskay (1605-07), a former Habsburg supporter, musters an army that expels the imperial forces.

In 1606 Bocskay concludes treaties with the Habsburgs and the Turks that secure his position as prince of Transylvania, guarantee religious freedom, and broaden Transylvania's independence.

After Bocskay' s death and the reign of the tyrant Gabriel Bathory (1607-13), the Porte compels the Transylvanians to accept Gabor Bethlen (1613-29) as prince.

Transylvania experiences a golden age under Bethlen's enlightened despotism. 

He promotes agriculture, trade, and industry, sinks new mines, sends students abroad to Protestant universities, and prohibits landlords from denying an education to children of serfs.

After Bethlen dies, however, the Transylvanian Diet abolishes most of his reforms.

Soon Gyorgy Rakoczi I (1630-40) becomes prince.

Rakoczi, like Bethlen, sends Transylvanian forces to fight with the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War; and Transylvania gains mention as a sovereign state in the Peace of Westphalia.

Transylvania's golden age ends after Gyorgy Rakoczi II (1648-60) launches an ill-fated attack on Poland without the prior approval of the Porte or Transylvania's Diet.

A Turkish and Tatar army routs Rakoczi's forces and seizes Transylvania.

For the remainder of its independence, Transylvania will suffer a series of feckless and distracted leaders, and throughout the seventeenth century Transylvania's Romanian peasants will linger in poverty and ignorance.

Gábor Iktári Bethlen, born into a leading Protestant family of northern Hungary, had been sent as a young man to the court of Prince Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania.

He had later helped István Bocskay gain the throne of Transylvania and has supported his successor, Gábor Báthory, who has turned out to be a tyrant.

Differences between Bethlen and Báthory have forced Bethlen to take refuge with the Turks.

Ottoman sultan Ahmed, suzerain of Transylvania, provides Bethlen with an army and proclaims him prince of Transylvania, a status that the Porte compels the Transylvanians to accept.

When Báthory is driven from power, a Diet at Kolozsvár in 1613 proclaims Bethlen prince.

Bethlen, who does much to promote the arts and sciences in Transylvania, establishes the Academy of Weissemburg (Karlsburg).

The Bohemian nobles on August 17, 1619, officially depose Ferdinand as King of Bohemia and replace him ten days later with the Palatine Elector Frederick V.

Frederick begins negotiating alliances with England (ruled by his Catholic Stewart father-in law James I), the United Provinces (virtually ruled by Frederick’s Protestant uncle, Maurice of Nassau) and Turkish-client state Transylvania, ruled by Protestant prince Gabor Bethlen, who hopes to wrest the Hungarian crown from the Habsburgs.

The Calvinist Prince of Transylvania, Gabriel Bethlen, leads a spirited campaign into Hungary with the support of the Ottoman Sultan.

Bethlen in September occupies the town of Kassa, where his Protestant supporters declare him "head" of Hungary and protector of the Protestants.

The Hungarian Diet, meeting at Banská Bystrica, which in the sixteenth century had been one of the foremost centers of the Protestant Reformation in Slovakia, elects Bethlen King of Hungary.

Bethlen soon wins over the entirety of present-day Slovakia, even securing the capital of Royal Hungary, Pozsony, in October, where the Palatine even hands over to Bethlen the Holy Crown of St. Stephen.