South Asia (1396–1539 CE)

Sultanates, Temple-States, and the Monsoon World on the Eve of Cannon Empires

Geography & Environmental Context

South Asia in this age comprised two interlocking spheres.
Northern South Asia included Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and northwestern Myanmar (the Arakan/Yakhine littoral and Chindwin valley)—a corridor from the Hindu Kush and Khyber gateways across the Indus and Ganges–Yamuna basins to the Brahmaputra delta and the Arakan coast.
Southern South Asia encompassed southern India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Lakshadweep, and the Chagos Archipelago—from the Deccan plateau and the Krishna–Tungabhadra–Kaveri valleys to the Coromandel and Malabar shores and the coral atolls of the central Indian Ocean.
Monsoon-fed plains, terraced Himalayan hills, pepper and cinnamon coasts, and atoll seas together formed one of the early modern world’s most diverse ecological mosaics.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age heightened variability:

• Western disturbances brought deeper winter snows to the Hindu Kush and pulses of rain to the Indus basin.

• The summer monsoon oscillated sharply, producing Ganges–Brahmaputra flood years followed by shortfalls that stressed rice and wheat belts.

• Himalayan glaciers advanced in pulses, modulating river regimes; Tarai malarial wetlands waxed and waned.

• In the south, the Southwest Monsoon fed Malabar’s pepper gardens, the Northeast Monsoon irrigated Coromandel fields; droughts struck the Deccan and Sri Lanka’s dry zone; atolls faced erratic winds, tuna swings, and cyclones.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Indus–Gangetic core: Wheat, barley, and pulses dominated the west; rice, sugarcane, and jute anchored the east. Sultanate irrigation (canals, nadi diversions) complemented long-lived village tanks in the doabs.

• Afghanistan & northwest uplands: Orchard–grain valleys (wheat, vines, pomegranates) paired with transhumant herds and caravan towns on the Kabul–Peshawar route.

• Nepal & Bhutan: Terrace rice in middle hills; millet, buckwheat, and barley higher up; yak–sheep transhumance; salt–grain exchange over the passes.

• Bengal delta: Intensive wet-rice, fishponds, and palm groves supported dense levee settlements.

• Arakan littoral & Chindwin valley: Rice coasts and shifting cultivation under the rising kingdom of Mrauk U(founded 1430), a mediator between Bengal and the Bay of Bengal.

• Deccan & peninsular India: Under Vijayanagara, irrigated rice, millets, and pulses flourished; coastal spice gardens thrived.

• Sri Lanka: Kotte in the southwest and Jaffna in the north organized rice, coconut, and cinnamon.

• Maldives & Lakshadweep: Coconuts, tuna, and imported rice sustained atolls; dried tuna (mas huni) and cowries circulated widely. Chagos remained uninhabited, yet entered pilots’ lore.

Technology & Material Culture

• Hydraulics & fields: Sultanate canals, village tanks, Persian wheels; terrace walls in the Himalaya and Sri Lanka’s reservoirs stabilized yields.

• Courtly landscapes: Fortified citadels, ribbed domes, and chahar-bāgh gardens inscribed Persianate aesthetics across the plains; in the south, stone temples, soaring gopuram gateways, bronzes, and manuscript ateliers flourished under Vijayanagara.

• Textiles & metalwork: Bengal’s cottons and fine metal casting; pepper trellises on Malabar; coral-stone mosques in the Maldives; shipyards from Calicut to Cochin.

• Scripts & paper: Paper mills and scriptoria multiplied Persian and vernacular manuscripts; temple workshops copied śāstra and puranic lore; island chronicles (tarikh) recorded dynasties.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Khyber & Bolan passes: Funneled Central Asian contingents—Timur’s catastrophic raid (1398) and, later, Bābur’s Timurid thrusts into the Punjab.

• Trunk roads & waterways: Grand-Trunk–style arteries linked Lahore–Delhi–Agra–Varanasi to Bengal river ports; caravanserais and market towns proliferated.

• Himalayan routes: Salt, wool, and metalware moved between Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and the plains; monastic and royal courts managed passes.

• Indian Ocean circuits: Calicut, Cochin, and Colombo served Arab, Gujarati, and Chinese merchants; horses, textiles, and silver moved in, pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, pearls, and elephants out.

• Atoll chains: Maldives supplied cowries and dried fish; Lakshadweep bridged Kerala to the central ocean; Chagos marked reefs on charts.

• Portuguese entry: Vasco da Gama at Calicut (1498); Goa seized (1510); forts at Cochin, Colombo, and Malacca (1511) reoriented sea-lanes.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Persianate–Indic synthesis: Under the Delhi Sultanate and successor houses (Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat), mosque complexes, madrasas, and Sufi hospices flourished; qawwali, Persian poetry, and vernacular bhaktispread in parallel; shared shrine circuits and urs feasts mediated urban and rural worlds.

• Himalayan courts: Malla polities in Nepal patronized thangka painting, scholastic lineages, and festival calendars; Bhutanese monastic states fused ritual and rule.

• Coastal kingdoms: Vijayanagara courts sponsored temple dance (Bharatanatyam), court poetry, and merchant guilds; Kotte and Jaffna balanced Buddhist and Hindu forms.

• Atolls: Islamic devotion structured Maldives and Lakshadweep—coral mosques, Quran schools, and royal tarikh—adapted to maritime lifeways.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Field rotations: Wheat–pulse and paddy–legume cycles sustained soil; flood-recession rice and raised beds in Bengal buffered deluge and drought.

• Terraces & forests: Stone walls and shelter belts stabilized Himalayan slopes; transhumance staggered herds by elevation and season.

• Tank systems: Check-gates and storage in the Deccan and Sri Lanka mitigated failure years.

• Atoll strategies: Diversified coconut–tuna economies, cisterns, and inter-island exchange underwrote fragile ecologies.

• Institutional relief: Waqf/devadāna lands provisioned monasteries, mosques, and temples that dispensed grain; village banks and merchant credit smoothed shocks.

Technology & Power Shifts (Conflict Dynamics)

• Sultanate fracture & Timurid shock: Timur’s sack of Delhi (1398) shattered central authority; regional houses rose as the Delhi court recovered fitfully.

• Timurid–Mughal advent: Bābur seized Kabul (1504), then Panipat (1526), founding the Mughal polity; consolidation followed at Khanwa (1527) and Chanderi (1528), as Rajput houses bargained war and marriage.

• Arakanese hinge: Mrauk U (from 1430) linked Bengal to Myanmar’s coasts, sheltering Muslim refugees and traders and projecting power across the Kaladan and Chindwin valleys.

• Vijayanagara zenith: Under rulers like Krishnadevaraya (r. 1509–1529), the empire contested Bahmani successors, fielding fortified cities and massed armies.

• Portuguese shock: Goa (1510) became the Estado da Índia headquarters; forts at Cochin, Colombo, and Malacca inserted cannon into monsoon politics; raids touched the Maldives and mapped Chagos.

Transition (to 1539 CE)

By 1539, South Asia balanced old orders and new horizons.
In the north, Timurid–Mughal beginnings met sultanate polities in the plains, Malla courts in the Himalaya, and Mrauk U on the Bengal–Arakan hinge.
In the south, Vijayanagara shone in temple and tank, even as Portugal’s forts and fleets rewired Indian Ocean trade.
Across deltas, passes, and atolls, resilience rested on irrigation, redistribution, and diaspora networks—an ecologically diverse monsoon world standing at the threshold of gunpowder empire and global convergence.

Upper South Asia (1396–1539 CE): Sultanates, Mountain Kingdoms, and Arakanese Gateways

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of Upper South Asia includes Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and northwestern Myanmar (the northern Arakan/Yakhine sector and the Chindwin valley). Anchors included the Hindu Kush and Khyber gateways, the Indus and Ganges–Yamuna basins, the Tarai and Himalayan hills, the Brahmaputra delta, and the Arakan coast with its river valleys (Kaladan, Chindwin). This corridor linked Central Asia to the Indo-Gangetic plain and the Bay of Bengal through Bengal–Arakan exchanges.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age brought cooler temperatures and heightened climate variability. Western disturbances delivered winter snows to the Hindu Kush and rains to the Indus basin; the summer monsoon fluctuated, producing flood years on the Ganges and Brahmaputra followed by shortfalls that stressed rice and wheat zones. Himalayan glaciers advanced in pulses, affecting river regimes; in the Tarai, malarial wetlands waxed and waned with rainfall.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Indus–Gangetic plains: Wheat, barley, and pulses in the west; rice, sugarcane, and jute in the east. Irrigation by canals and nadi diversions expanded around sultanate centers; village tank systems persisted in the doabs.

• Afghanistan and northwest uplands: Oasis and valley farming (wheat, orchards, vines) combined with transhumant herding of sheep, goats, and horses; caravan towns thrived on the Kabul–Peshawar route.

• Nepal and Bhutan: Terrace agriculture of rice (middle hills), millet, buckwheat, and barley (higher zones); pastoral yak and sheep herding on alpine pastures; salt–grain exchange across passes.

• Bengal delta: Intensive wet-rice cultivation, fishponds, and palm groves supported dense settlement along levees and backswamps.

• Northwestern Myanmar: Rice farming in the Arakan littoral and shifting cultivation in the Chindwin valley supported Arakanese states. The Kingdom of Mrauk U (founded 1430) became a major power, mediating between Bengal, the Bay of Bengal, and inland valleys. Muslim refugees and traders from Bengal enriched its cosmopolitan court..

Technology & Material Culture

Persianate hydraulics and sultanate canal-building complemented village tanks; Persian wheels lifted water in the doabs. Fortified stone and brick citadels, ribbed domes, and chahar-bagh gardens marked courtly landscapes. Paper mills and scriptoria expanded Persian and vernacular manuscript culture; coinage reforms standardized silver and copper issues. In the hills, dry-stone terrace walls, timber monasteries, and metalwork (bells, ritual objects, blades) anchored local craft ecologies; Bengal excelled in cotton textiles and fine metal casting.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Khyber and Bolan passes: Funneled Central Asian contingents: Timur’s invasion (1398) devastated Delhi; later Turkic–Mongol lineages probed the plains.

• Grand Trunk–style trunk roads: Linked Lahore–Delhi–Agra–Varanasi to Bengal river ports; caravanserais and market towns multiplied.

• Himalayan trade paths: Carried salt, wool, and metalware between Tibet, Nepal, and the Gangetic plains; Bhutan’s passes tied monastic polities to Assam and Bengal.

• Delta waterways: The Ganges–Brahmaputra arterial network moved rice, jute, and textiles from the interior to coastal entrepôts.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

Persianate court culture flourished under the Delhi Sultanate, blending with Indic forms in mosque complexes, madrasas, and Sufi hospices; qawwali, Persian poetry, and vernacular bhakti spread in parallel. In the Himalaya, Buddhist and Vajrayana monasteries patronized thangka painting, scholastic lineages, and festival calendars; Hindu shrines and royal cults thrived in Nepal’s Malla courts. In the plains, bhakti saints and Sufi pirs localized universal ideals—shared shrine circuits and urs feasts mediated social worlds in towns and villages. Bengal’s mosques and temples integrated terracotta reliefs, signaling interlaced aesthetic idioms.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Farmers rotated wheat–pulses and paddy–legumes, used flood-recession rice and raised-bed cultivation in the delta, and relied on tanks and canal check-gates in drought years. Terrace walls and forest belts stabilized Himalayan slopes; transhumant routes staggered herds across elevations. Monasteries, mosques, and temples held waqf/devadana lands that provisioned relief in dearth; village grain banks and merchant guild credit buffered shortfalls.

Technology & Power Shifts (Conflict Dynamics)

Timur’s sack of Delhi (1398) fractured sultanate authority; regional houses (Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat) rose across the fifteenth century as the Delhi court recovered fitfully. In Afghanistan and the northwest, Babur—a Timurid prince—seized Kabul (1504), probing the Punjab via Panipat (1526) to found the Mughal polity, then consolidated at Khanwa (1527) and Chanderi (1528). Bengal maintained semi-autonomy with powerful governors; Rajput houses bargained war and marriage with rising Mughals; in the hills, Nepal’s Malla kingdoms and Bhutanese monastic states managed succession and pass politics amid Tibetan currents.

Transition

By 1539 CE, Upper South Asia balanced Timurid–Mughal beginnings in the northwest with Sultanate polities in the plains, Malla courts in Nepal, and the Arakanese kingdom of Mrauk U linking Bengal to Myanmar’s coasts.

The highly cultured Emperor Babur, conqueror of Hindustan, also a poet and the author of memoirs, has established a policy of tolerance toward his Hindu subjects, although he dislikes India.

Having conquered northern India as far as Bengal, he dies at forty-seven on December 26, 1530.

During his brief reign, Babur has not had time to establish a secure administration and the succession of his twenty-two-year-old son Humayun, who must now secure the basis of Mughal rule that Babur did not live to consolidate.

The Afghans and the Hindus both contest Humayun’s control over his father’s conquests.

Babur's death at forty-seven had left Humayun, his twenty-two-year-old son and successor, with the task of territorial consolidation of Hindustan.

The new and somewhat feckless emperor’s true interests lie not in conquest but rather in wine, opium, poetry, and astrology.

He fails in 1531 in his first military adventure, the subjugation of the Hindu principality of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand, to the south of Delhi.

Bahadur Shah's father was Shams-ud-Din Muzaffar Shah II, who had ascended to the throne of the Gujarat Sultanate in 1511.

Muzaffar Shah II had nominated Sikandar Shah (Bahadur Shah's elder brother) as the heir apparent to the throne.

Bahadur Shah's relationship with his brother and father became tense as Sikandar Shah began to assume greater administrative control.

Fearing for his life, Bahadur Shah fled Gujarat, first seeking refuge with Chittor, and then with Ibrahim Lodi.

He was present at the Battle of Panipat, though he did not take part in fighting.

When he received the news of the death of his father on April 5, 1526 he returned to Gujarat and was joined by almost all the nobles except the murderers of his eldest brother Sikandar, who succeeded his father Muzzaffar Shah II.

The opposition was suppressed immediately and they were executed.

After this Bahadur, turned against his brothers, his nearest rival Latif was severely wounded in an action, taken prisoner and died in captivity.

Mahmud II, the infant son of Muzaffar Shah II, who succeeded Sikandar after his death and three other princes were poisoned.

Only one of his brothers, Chand Khan, survived, as he had taken refuge at the Malwa court and the Sultan Mahmud II of Malwa refused to surrender him[.

During his reign, Gujarat is under pressure from the expanding Mughal Empire, and from the Portuguese, who are establishing fortified settlements on the Gujarat coast to expand their power in India from their base in Goa.

After Bahadur ascended to the throne in 1526, he had been requested by the rulers of the Khandesh and Berar to attack the Ahmednagar Sultanate.

In 1528, Bahadur had invested the fort of Daulatabad, but later he was forced to retire because of the stiff resistance put up by the Ahmadnagar army.

Next year, he again started the campaign and overcoming a stiff opposition again besieged Daulatabad.

At this point, one of his allies, the ruler of Berar, had betrayed him and retired to Bidar.

Finally, both the rulers of the Ahmadnagar and Berar were forced to sign a humiliating treaty.

Next, Bahadur invaded Malwa.

Mahmud II literally made no resistance and on March 28, 1531 Mandu fell to Bahadur's army and is annexed into his kingdom.

The Portuguese in 1531 had begun a concerted effort to capture Diu from the Egyptian Muslim and Gujarati soldiers who hold it.

While Bahadur is engaged in the siege of Mandu, a strong Portuguese fleet sails from Mumbai, led by Nuno da Cunha.

On February 7, 1531 the fleet reaches near Shiyal Bet island, which they capture, overcoming the defenses in spite of strong resistance.

On February 16, 1531 they start bombarding Diu but cannot succeed in inflicting any appreciable damage to its fortifications.

On March 1, 1531 Nuno da Cunha leaves for Goa, leaving a subordinate officer, who systematically destroys Mahuwa, Gogo, Bulsar, Mahim, Kelva, Agashi and Surat.

Afghan warrior Farid Khan, a horse breeder’s son who had begun his military career as a private in the army of Jamal Khan, the governor of Jaunpur, soon proved to be a brave and brilliant leader.

He had accompanied Babur from Kabul to victory in India.

Later, while in the service of the Mughal king of Bihar, he had been awarded the title Sher Khan, Sher meaning "tiger."

Humayun picks a quarrel with Sher Khan, governor of the vassal Bihar state, by failing to capture his fortress at Chunar in 1532, thus earning Sher Khan’s undying rivalry.

The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, is the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the mid-sixteenth century.

Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun, Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate is obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese Empire on December 23, 1534.

According to the treaty, the seven islands of Bombay, the nearby strategic town of Bassein and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese.

The territories will be surrendered on October 25, 1535.

Humayun, intent on expansion to the south and west, invades Malwa and Gujarat in 1535.

Seizing the forts of Mandu and Champaner, he drives Sultan Bahadur of Gujurat down the west coast to take refuge among the Portuguese.

Bahadur Shah, while on board the galleon St. Mattheus, had signed the Treaty of Bassein on December 23, 1534.

Based on the terms of the agreement, the Portuguese Empire gained control of the city of Bassein (Vasai), as well as its territories, islands, and seas.

Gujarat is occupied around 1535 by the Mughals, and Bahadur Shah is forced to conclude an alliance with the Portuguese to regain the country, conceding Daman and Diu, Mumbai, and Vasai to the Portuguese.