Henry VII's foreign policy is a peaceful one.

He had formed an alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, but in 1493, when they go to war with France, England is dragged into the conflict.

With his crown impoverished and his hold on power insecure, Henry has no desire to go to war.

He quickly reaches an understanding with the French and renounces all claims to their territory except the port of Calais, realizing also that nothing can be done to stop them from incorporating the Duchy of Brittany.

In return, the French agree to recognize him as king and stop sheltering pretenders.

Shortly afterwards, they become preoccupied with adventures in Italy and turn their attention away from England.

Henry also reaches an understanding with Scotland, agreeing to marry his daughter Margaret to that country's king James IV.

Henry VIII begins his reign with a high degree of optimism.

The handsome, athletic young king stands in sharp contrast to his wary, miserly father.

Henry's lavish court quickly drains the treasury of the fortune he had inherited.

He married the widowed Catherine of Aragon, and they have several children, but none survive infancy except a daughter, Mary.

In 1512, the young king embarks on a war in France.

Although England is an ally of Spain, one of France's principal enemies, the war is mostly about Henry's desire for personal glory, regardless of the fact that his sister Mary is married to the French king Louis XII.

The war accomplishes little.

The English army suffers badly from disease, and Henry is not even present at the one notable victory, the Battle of the Spurs.

Meanwhile, James IV of Scotland (despite being Henry's other brother-in-law), activates his alliance with the French and declares war on England.

While Henry is dallying in France, Catherine, who is serving as regent in his absence, and his advisers are left to deal with this threat.

At the Battle of Flodden on September 9, 1513, the Scots are completely and totally defeated.

Most of the Scottish nobility are killed along with James himself.

When Henry returns from France, he is given credit for the victory even though he had had nothing to do with it.

Northwest Europe (1480–1491 CE): Consolidation, Conflict, and Cultural Expansion

England: Consolidation of Yorkist Power

Following years of dynastic turmoil, Edward IV effectively stabilized his reign and strengthened the Yorkist hold on power, ruling with considerable authority until his sudden death in 1483. His young heir, Edward V, briefly ascended the throne, but Edward IV’s brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, seized the crown, becoming Richard III. Richard III's reign was overshadowed by controversy, especially surrounding the disappearance of Edward V and his brother, the "Princes in the Tower," presumed murdered. In 1485, the Lancastrian claimant Henry Tudor challenged Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field, where Richard III was killed, effectively ending the Wars of the Roses. Henry Tudor became Henry VII, establishing the Tudor dynasty and marking a significant turning point in English history. Sporadic Yorkist revolts continued, resulting in the last pitched battles of the Wars of the Roses, though stability gradually returned under Henry VII's cautious but firm governance.

Scotland: Persistent Nobility Conflict

In Scotland, King James III faced continued tensions and rebellions due to his unpopular favoritism toward commoners and estrangement from powerful noble factions. Conflict culminated dramatically in 1488 at the Battle of Sauchieburn, where James III was killed and succeeded by his son, James IV, whose reign ushered in greater political stability and cultural growth, enhancing Scotland’s Renaissance. An agreement between James III and the Macdonald “Lord of the Isles” in 1480 turned Macdonald’s illegitimate son, Aonghas Óg, against both his father and the central government, leading to continued violent divisions in the Highlands until Aonghas’s assassination in 1490. Anglo-Scottish truces negotiated in 1484, 1487, and again in 1491 contributed to relative peace.

Ireland: Gaelic Dominance and Limited English Influence

Ireland saw sustained Gaelic power, with dominant families such as the Fitzgeralds and O'Neills continuing to effectively limit English authority largely to the region around The Pale. Despite intermittent English efforts at asserting greater control, Gaelic society flourished culturally and politically, strengthening the autonomous Irish identity through continued production of native poetry and adherence to traditional Brehon laws.

Scandinavia: Fragile Stability of the Kalmar Union

The Kalmar Union under King Hans (John) continued to experience tensions, especially from Sweden, which persistently sought greater independence. King Hans pursued a balanced policy combining diplomatic efforts and strategic marital alliances to maintain Danish dominance. The Union remained intact, albeit fragile, highlighting the ongoing struggle between centralized royal power and regional independence movements.

Iceland: Preservation of Literary Heritage

In Iceland, isolation and limited economic resources compelled continued cultural self-reliance. Manuscript production persisted robustly, preserving essential Icelandic sagas and poetic traditions. Despite external pressures, Icelanders remained culturally vibrant, carefully transmitting their historical narratives and literary achievements from generation to generation.

Cultural and Intellectual Advances

The period experienced remarkable cultural expansion. In England, William Caxton’s Westminster press continued publishing essential literary works, including Sir Thomas Malory’s influential Morte Darthur in print form in 1485, greatly impacting literary traditions. Caxton’s press also produced a translation in 1481 of the Flemish version of Reynard the Fox, and his translation of Vincent of Beauvais’s Myrour of the Worlde. Additionally, Caxton published his Vocabulary in French and English and numerous works by Chaucer and Gower, solidifying the English literary language. Caxton’s associate, Theoderic Rood, introduced printing to Oxford, enhancing scholarly output, including influential texts like John Ankywyll's Compendium totius grammaticae.

Architectural innovations proceeded with widespread adoption of the Perpendicular Gothic style, particularly in church construction, exemplified by the ongoing enhancements to York Minster, whose Magdalen Tower became an iconic Oxford landmark. Music and visual arts flourished, shaped by influences from continental Europe and regional creativity.

Legacy of the Era

By 1491 CE, Northwest Europe entered a period marked by renewed dynastic stability, cultural enrichment, and persistent regional autonomy. England transitioned smoothly into Tudor rule, Scotland saw relative internal peace under James IV, Ireland maintained robust Gaelic autonomy, and the Kalmar Union navigated continuing internal strains. The enduring literary and cultural heritage, supported by innovations in printing and artistic expression, laid strong foundations for Northwest Europe’s subsequent development.

Conspirators directed by Douglas in 1488 capture James’ fifteen-year-old son.

After James attempts, unsuccessfully, to come to terms with the conspirators, he flees to Stirling, where the keeper of the castle refuses, treasonously, to grant his monarch admission.

James then faces the conspirators’ army at Suachie Burn, where, injured by a fall from his horse, James is stabbed to death by an unknown assailant.

His grieving son is released and crowned James IV, with Douglas named as regent.

Perkin Warbeck, who, claiming to be Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, had first claimed the English throne at the court of Burgundy in 1490, had explained his (i.e., Richard of Shrewsbury's) mysterious disappearance, by claiming that his brother Edward V had been murdered, but he had been spared by his brother's (unidentified) killers because of his age and "innocence".

He had been made to swear an oath, however, not to reveal his true identity for "a certain number of years".

He had lived from 1483 to 1490 on the continent of Europe under the protection of Yorkist loyalists, but when his main guardian, Sir Edward Brampton, returned to England, he was left free.

He then declared his true identity.

Warbeck had landed in Ireland in 1491 in the hope of gaining support for his claim as Lambert Simnel had four years previously.

However, little support was found and he was forced to return to the European mainland.

Here his fortunes have improved.

He was first received by Charles VIII of France, but in 1492 was expelled under the terms of the Treaty of Etaples, by which Charles had agreed not to shelter rebels against Henry VII.

He has been publicly recognized as Richard of Shrewsbury by Margaret of York, the widow of Charles the Bold, the sister of Edward IV and thus the aunt of the Princes in the Tower.

Whether Margaret truly believes that the pretender is her nephew Richard, or whether she considers him a fraud but supported him anyway, is unknown, but she tutors him in the ways of the Yorkist court.

Henry complains to Philip of Habsburg, Duke of Burgundy, about the harboring of the pretender, and, since he is ignored, imposed a trade embargo on Burgundy, cutting off important Burgundian trade-links with England.

The pretender is also welcomed by various other monarchs and is known in international diplomacy as the Duke of York.

At the invitation of Duke Philip's father, King Maximilian I, in 1493 he attends the funeral of the Emperor Frederick III and is recognized as King Richard IV of England.

The pretender also promises that if he dies before becoming king, his claim will fall to Maximilian.

Frederick’s grave, built by Nikolaus Gerhaert von Leyden, in St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna, is one of the most important works of sculptural art of the late Middle Ages. (His amputated leg is buried with him.)

The heavily adorned tomb will not be completed until 1513, two decades after Frederick's death; it survives today in its original condition.

Perkin Warbeck, funded by Margaret of Burgundy, lands on July 3, 1495, at Deal in Kent, hoping for a show of popular support.

Warbeck's small army is routed and one hundred and fifty of the pretender’s troops are killed without Warbeck even disembarking.

He is forced to retreat almost immediately, this time to …

…Ireland.

Here he finds support from Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Desmond, and lays siege to Waterford, but, meeting resistance, …

…he flees to Scotland.

Henry pardons his Irish supporters, remarking drily "I suppose they will crown an ape next".

Warbeck is well received by James IV of Scotland, who realizes that his presence gives him international leverage.

As Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain are negotiating an alliance with Henry VII, James IV knows that Spain will help him in his struggles with England, in order to prevent the situation escalating into war with France.

Spanish ambassadors arrive in Edinburgh, and later Pedro de Ayala is established as a resident ambassador during the crisis.

Warbeck is permitted to marry James's distant cousin, Lady Catherine Gordon, a daughter of George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly.

The marriage is celebrated in Edinburgh with a tournament.

James gives Warbeck clothes for the wedding and armor covered with purple silk.

The historian Katie Stevenson suggests the clothing bought for the tournament shows Warbeck fought in a team with the king and four knights.

A copy of a love letter in Latin obtained by Pedro de Ayala, is thought to be Warbeck's proposal to Lady Catherine.

King's College is the first university in Aberdeen, the third in Scotland and the fifth in the British Isles.

William Elphinstone, the relatively newly appointed Bishop of Aberdeen, has petitioned Pope Alexander VI on behalf of King James IV to create the facility to cure the ignorance he has witnessed within his parish and in the north generally.

A papal bull is issued in February 1495 (1491 in the calendar of the day) founding the university; a royal charter later this year recognizes Aberdeen's status as equal to that of Scotland's two existing universities at Glasgow and St Andrews.

As a former professor at the University of Paris, Elphinstone models the university very much on the continental European tradition.

Hector Boece, a fellow professor at Paris, is awarded the status of first principal of the new institution.

James IV prepares to invade England with Warbeck in September 1496.

A red, gold and silver banner is made for Warbeck as the Duke of York; James's armor is gilded and painted; and the royal artillery is prepared.

John Ramsay of Balmain (who calls himself Lord Bothwell) describes the events for Henry VII.

He sees Roderic de Lalanne, a Flemish knight, arrive with two little ships and sixty German soldiers and meet James IV and talk to Warbeck.

In Edinburgh Castle Ramsay sees two great French guns called 'curtalds,' ten falconets or little serpentines, and thirty iron breech-loading 'cart guns' with sixteen close-carts or wagons for the munitions.

He estimates the invasion force will last only four to five days in England before it runs out of provisions.

He suggests, from the safety of Berwick upon Tweed, that the Scots could be vanquished by a modest English force attacking from north and south in a pincer movement.