Southwest Europe (1540–1683 CE)

Habsburg Sea Power, Baroque Splendor, and Ottoman Encounters

Geography & Environmental Context

Southwest Europe in this era encompassed Spain, Italy (including Sicily, Sardinia, and Milan), Malta, and the Balearic Islands—a region unified under the broad influence of Habsburg empire and shadowed by the Ottoman frontier. Anchors stretched from the Po Valley and Apennines to the Andalusian plains, from the Valencian huertas to the fortified harbors of Malta, Messina, and Barcelona. The western Mediterranean linked fertile deltas and mountainous interiors to a network of maritime highways—the very arteries of imperial power and commerce.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age deepened its grip between the mid-sixteenth and mid-seventeenth centuries. Cool, wet decades (1550s–1620s) alternated with prolonged droughts (1630s–1660s):

• Po Valley floods and silting tested irrigation networks.

• Andalusia, Sicily, and Murcia suffered harvest failures under aridity.

• Terraced slopes of Catalonia and Liguria faced erosion from torrential winter rains.
  Urban resilience relied on imported Sicilian and Sardinian grain, huerta irrigation, and charitable granaries. American crops such as maize and peppers, diffusing gradually, improved food security across rural districts.

Subsistence & Settlement

Cereal, vine, and olive cultures remained the economic base, complemented by citrus and pastoralism.

• Italy: Rice expanded in Lombardy; olives and silk thrived around Naples and Tuscany.

• Spain: Andalusia’s olive estates, Valencia’s sugar and silk, and Murcia’s irrigated citrus supported dense populations.

• Sicily and Sardinia: Granaries of empire; wheat exports fed Naples, Rome, and the Spanish navy.

• Malta & Balearics: Dependent on imports but essential as naval depots and fisheries.

Urbanization peaked: Naples exceeded a quarter million inhabitants; Seville, Valencia, Palermo, and Venice flourished as port metropolises linking Europe to the Atlantic and Levant.

Technology & Material Culture

• Hydraulics & irrigation: Canal dredging in the Po Delta, acequia upkeep in Valencia, and cistern systems in Malta and Sardinia mitigated climatic stress.

• Maritime innovation: Arsenal systems at Venice, Genoa, and Barcelona produced galleons and galleasses; the transition from oared to sail-driven fleets blurred the Mediterranean–Atlantic divide.

• Manufactures: Venetian glass, Neapolitan and Florentine silks, Valencian ceramics, and Sevillian metalwork adorned both courtly and ecclesiastical settings.

• Architecture & arts: The Baroque replaced the Renaissance—Bernini and Borromini in Rome, Caravaggio in Naples, Zurbarán and El Greco in Iberia—melding sacred passion with imperial majesty.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Imperial arteries: The Spanish Road linked Milan to Flanders, while Mediterranean convoys moved troops, bullion, and grain to the Levantine frontier.

• Trade circuits: Venice dealt in Levantine goods; Genoa financed Habsburg loans; Seville and later Cádiz funneled American silver into Mediterranean markets.

• Pilgrimage & diplomacy: Jubilee processions in Rome and the fortified splendor of Valletta symbolized Catholic resilience. Jesuit missions spread education and reform from Italian and Iberian ports to Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

The Catholic Reformation defined the region’s spiritual and artistic life.

• The Council of Trent (1545–1563) reaffirmed doctrine and inspired an artistic counteroffensive—the visual eloquence of Baroque sculpture, music, and architecture proclaiming divine order.

• Rome regained its stature as capital of faith; Jesuit colleges and Franciscan missions spread learning from Palermo to Lisbon.

• Malta, entrusted to the Knights of St. John, repelled the Ottoman siege (1565), transforming Valletta into a walled sanctuary of Christendom.

• Folk traditions—harvest feasts, confraternities, and processions—endured beneath clerical orthodoxy, fusing old and new devotional worlds.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Mixed agriculture, rotational grazing, and intercropped vines and olives buffered against famine. Urban monti di pietà(public grain funds) and confraternal charities distributed bread in crisis years. Imports of maize, potato, and beans from the New World diversified diets, easing demographic recovery after plague cycles (notably Naples 1656, Seville 1649). Irrigation and terrace rebuilding sustained rural populations through climatic volatility.

Technology & Power Shifts (Conflict Dynamics)

• Ottoman frontier: Naval clashes at Malta (1565) and Lepanto (1571) marked the zenith of Christian–Ottoman contest.

• Venetian wars: Costly struggles for Cyprus (1570–73) and Crete (1645–1669) sapped Venice’s strength yet preserved its maritime prestige.

• Habsburg entanglements: The Dutch Revolt, Thirty Years’ War, and Neapolitan and Catalan uprisings (1640s) drained Spanish coffers and authority.

• Corsair and pirate war: Barbary fleets raided Sicily, Valencia, and the Balearics, while Mediterranean galleons hunted rivals across shifting alliances.

• Fiscal exhaustion & renewal: The 17th century’s recessions and plagues weakened Spain’s grip, but stable dynasties restored order by the 1680s.

Transition (to 1683 CE)

By 1683, Southwest Europe remained the cultural and maritime heart of the Catholic world. Habsburg Spain ruled Naples, Sardinia, and Sicily; Venice and Genoa persisted as cosmopolitan city-states; Malta, rebuilt after siege, stood as fortress and hospital of the seas.
Baroque art and Jesuit learning animated its cities, while ships from Seville, Valencia, Naples, and Venice spanned oceans from the Caribbean to the Levant.
Despite famine, plague, and revolt, irrigation, terrace agriculture, and global commerce preserved prosperity. The region’s blend of imperial might, artistic grandeur, and maritime innovation made Southwest Europe the enduring core of the early modern Mediterranean world.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1540–1683 CE)

Empire, Faith, and the Baroque Sea

Geography & Environmental Context

Mediterranean Southwest Europe spans Italy (with Sardinia and Sicily), Malta, and southeastern Spain—including Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia’s southern coast, and the Balearic Islands. Anchors included the volcanic peaks of Etna and Vesuvius, the Po Valley, the Apennine spine, the Bay of Naples, the Ebro delta, and the Mediterranean archipelagos linking Iberia to Italy.
The Little Ice Age brought alternating droughts and torrential winters, particularly across Andalusia and southern Italy. Erratic rains affected wheat and olive harvests, while extended cool seasons reduced grape yields in uplands. Yet the region’s maritime orientation, diversified crops, and enduring irrigation networks sustained dense populations and vibrant coastal cities.

Political Landscapes & Imperial Tides

Spanish and Italian Worlds under Habsburg Rule

By the mid-16th century, Habsburg Spain presided over a trans-Mediterranean empire linking Andalusia, Naples, Sicily, Milan, and the Balearics into a single imperial framework. From Seville, treasure fleets departed for the Americas; from Naples and Messina, fleets supplied the garrisons of Tunis and Oran. The Spanish Crown maintained tight control through viceroys in Naples, Sicily, and Milan, whose palaces and arsenals symbolized both imperial reach and bureaucratic weight.
Habsburg Italy bore the dual imprint of Spanish absolutism and local autonomy: the Republics of Venice and Genoa remained formally independent but economically bound to the empire’s trade and credit systems.

The Papal and Ducal States

In central Italy, the Papal States reasserted ecclesiastical sovereignty under the Counter-Reformation. Popes like Paul III and Urban VIII fused religious zeal with Baroque patronage—rebuilding St. Peter’s Basilica, commissioning Bernini’s colonnades, and sponsoring the Jesuit missions that radiated outward through Malta, Goa, and the New World.
Elsewhere, ducal courts—Florence, Ferrara, Modena, Parma, Mantua—balanced Habsburg oversight with artistic grandeur, cultivating painters, architects, and philosophers whose work defined European taste.

Malta and the Great Siege (1565)

The Order of Saint John transformed Malta into a fortified bastion of Christendom. The Great Siege of 1565, when Ottoman fleets besieged the island for months, became a defining episode: the Knights’ victory resonated across Europe as a triumph of faith and endurance. Valletta, rebuilt after the siege, embodied Renaissance geometry fused with military modernity—a city of bastions, domes, and arsenals facing east toward perpetual vigilance.

Ottoman–Habsburg Maritime Conflict

The Battle of Lepanto (1571)—fought off western Greece—marked the climax of Mediterranean naval rivalry. A Holy League fleet led by Don John of Austria shattered Ottoman naval supremacy, though piracy and privateering persisted from Barbary corsairs to Calabrian coasts. Coastal watchtowers, signal fires, and galleys patrolling from Messina to Alicante embodied the militarization of the sea.

Economy & Material Life

Agrarian Systems and Maritime Exchange

Across Italy and Spain’s southern provinces, irrigation channels, terraces, and communal cisterns preserved the legacy of Moorish and Roman water management. Andalusian latifundia produced olives, citrus, and wine for export through Cádiz and Valencia. Sicily and Apulia fed the empire with grain; Malta and the Balearics served as provisioning depots. Sardinia’s salt pans and cork forests entered Mediterranean trade, while silk from Naples and Valencia graced European markets.
Maritime commerce thrived despite warfare: Genoese financiers bankrolled the Spanish Crown; Neapolitan shipyards armed the fleets; and Italian artisans dominated luxury production in glass, lace, and ceramics.

Urban Economies and Guild Networks

Cities flourished as centers of both art and manufacture. Florence and Naples were theaters of opulence, their streets lined with new palaces and churches under Jesuit influence. Palermo, Messina, Seville, and Barcelona pulsed with the wealth of trade and bureaucracy. Guilds of silk-weavers, metalworkers, and printers maintained civic identity amid imperial centralization, while ports such as Livorno and Cádiz emerged as entrepôts for northern European merchants seeking Mediterranean wares.

Culture, Faith, and Expression

Counter-Reformation and the Baroque Imagination

No region embodied the Baroque Age more vividly than southern Europe. Following the Council of Trent (1545–1563), Catholic renewal found physical form in art, architecture, and ritual. Painters—Caravaggio, Zurbarán, Guido Reni, Ribera—filled churches with chiaroscuro devotion, dramatizing saints and martyrdoms.
Jesuit missions, schools, and printing presses spread reformed Catholic orthodoxy. Religious festivals combined processions, fireworks, and theater; mystery plays and pilgrimages reaffirmed sacred geography from Santiago de Compostela to Loreto.

Humanism and Science

Italian universities and academies bridged Renaissance inquiry and early modern science.  Galileo Galilei’s telescopes in Florence and Pisa redefined astronomy even as the Inquisition curtailed intellectual freedom. In Spain, writers like Cervantes and Lope de Vega turned chivalric decline into modern literature. Across Naples, Rome, and Madrid, patrons fused scholarship with spectacle, blending theology, natural philosophy, and performance into a single continuum of learning and faith.

Music and Theater

Opera was born in Florence around 1600, merging classical drama with courtly spectacle; by mid-century, it spread to Naples and Rome. Polyphonic sacred music flourished in Spanish and Italian cathedrals—Palestrina’s harmonies at St. Peter’s epitomized the new ideal of clarity and devotion. In Spain, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca, and Tirso de Molina filled public theaters with moral and political allegories reflecting the tensions of empire and conscience.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Farmers adapted to climatic variability through intercropping olives, vines, and grains, rotating fallows, and expanding irrigation. Mountain communities relied on chestnuts, wool, and transhumant flocks; coastal peasants planted citrus and maintained cisterns against drought. Urban granaries, monastic charities, and confraternities distributed food in famine years. Shipwrights and salt-makers rebuilt quickly after storms; the rhythms of harvest, pilgrimage, and festival intertwined survival with faith.

Conflict, Decline, and Renewal

From the Dutch Revolt to the Thirty Years’ War, Spain’s imperial burdens drained southern Europe’s resources. Taxation, plague (notably the Neapolitan outbreak of 1656), and warfare bred discontent and revolt—Masaniello’s uprising in Naples (1647) symbolized urban desperation. Yet even amid decline, the region’s artistic vitality and maritime skill endured. The Spanish Road through Lombardy carried troops north; Genoese bankers continued to fund empire; and Malta’s bastions stood firm against the Ottoman frontier.
By the 1670s, French influence under Louis XIV encroached on Catalonia and northern Italy, presaging new rivalries that would reshape Mediterranean geopolitics.

Transition (to 1683 CE)

By 1683, Mediterranean Southwest Europe remained the visual and spiritual heart of Catholic Europe. From Seville’s cathedrals to Rome’s domes and Valletta’s bastions, faith, art, and empire were inseparable. Habsburg power was ebbing, yet the Baroque imagination reached its zenith—its frescoes, sonatas, and marble colonnades echoing both triumph and fatigue.
As cooler climates, fiscal exhaustion, and northern rivals eroded its dominance, the region nonetheless retained its role as Europe’s sacred theater: a world of processions and harbors, saints and sailors, whose enduring blend of devotion and splendor would continue to define the Mediterranean soul for centuries to come.

Southwest Europe (1684 – 1827 CE)

Enlightenment, Revolution, and Imperial Decline

Geography & Environmental Context

Southwest Europe united two complementary subregions: Mediterranean Southwest Europe—southern and eastern Spain and Italy (from Catalonia and Valencia through Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta, including Andorra and Monaco)—and Atlantic Southwest Europe—northern Spain (Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, León) and central–northern Portugal, including Lisbon and the Douro Valley. The region encompassed contrasting worlds: Mediterranean coasts and olive-clad uplands, Atlantic-facing rías and mountain pastures, and the global imperial hubs of Madrid, Lisbon, and Naples.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The Little Ice Age’s final pulses brought cooler winters, erratic rains, and droughts punctuated by floods. The Tambora eruption (1815) caused the “Year Without a Summer” (1816–1817), producing harvest failures and famine across Iberia and Italy. In the Mediterranean, drought and locusts struck Sicily and Valencia; Atlantic coasts endured storms and failed fisheries. Yet maize, introduced earlier, spread widely and improved subsistence resilience, while the Douro and Ebro valleys sustained wine and olive production even in lean years.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agriculture & trade: Wheat, rye, and maize anchored highland diets; olives, vines, and citrus defined Mediterranean valleys; the Douro terraces produced port wine for export; Andalusian and Neapolitan estates exported olive oil and citrus; inland herders raised sheep and goats across the Meseta and Apennines.

• Fisheries & maritime life: Sardines, cod, and tuna sustained Atlantic coasts; coral and sponge fishing remained profitable in the Mediterranean.

• Urban networks: Madrid, Lisbon, Barcelona, Valencia, Naples, Palermo, Porto, Bilbao, A Coruña, and Genoa served as hubs of administration and commerce; Lisbon rebuilt after its 1755 earthquake with wide boulevards and Pombaline architecture; Monaco and Andorra survived as enclaved principalities amid continental warfare.

Technology & Material Culture

• Agrarian reform: The Enlightenment era promoted new crops, irrigation, and land surveys; Charles III’s Spain (1759–1788) fostered rational agronomy and economic societies.

• Urban reconstruction: Post-1755 Lisbon embodied neoclassical town planning; Naples, Turin, and Barcelonaadopted Enlightenment grids and academies.

• Industrial stirrings: Mining, silk weaving (Valencia, Lyon–Turin), shipyards on the Tagus and Bay of Biscay, and Lisbon’s arsenals foreshadowed later industrialization.

• Material life: Mix of peasant implements, maritime tools, and luxury imports from the Americas—Brazilian gold, sugar, coffee, and tobacco funded rococo palaces and religious art.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Imperial arteries:

  • Lisbon remained Europe’s bridge to Brazil, channeling sugar, gold, diamonds, and coffee.

  • Seville–Cadiz shifted to Atlantic trade after 1717; Barcelona–Valencia retained Mediterranean shipping to Italy and the Levant.

  • The Douro–Porto corridor tied vineyards to Britain under the Methuen Treaty (1703), fostering Anglo-Portuguese mercantile ties.

• War and diplomacy:

  • War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714): Reshaped European alliances; Austria gained Italian territories, Savoy took Sardinia.

  • Peninsular War (1808–1814): French occupation of Spain and Portugal brought devastation but also nationalist mobilization and guerrilla warfare; Lisbon survived under British naval protection.

  • Congress of Vienna (1815): Reinstated monarchies—Bourbon Spain, Sardinian Savoy, Naples/Bourbon Two Sicilies—yet could not erase revolutionary legacies.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion & reform: Catholic devotion persisted but came under scrutiny; Enlightened monarchs curbed monastic orders and seized church lands; the Jesuit expulsion (1767) marked a decisive shift toward state control.

• Intellectual ferment: Universities in Coimbra, Madrid, Naples, Barcelona, and Bologna hosted reformist thinkers; Spanish and Italian Enlightenments circulated through learned societies and journals.

• Art & literature: Neoclassicism flourished in Rome and Madrid; Goya’s paintings captured both Enlightenment optimism and Napoleonic horror; Jacques-Louis David’s Roman studies influenced European art.

• Popular culture: Pilgrimages to Santiago de Compostela, Galician bagpipes (gaita), Portuguese fado, and Neapolitan song embodied enduring vernacular identities.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Diversified economies—grain, vines, olives, livestock, and fisheries—softened climatic shocks. Parish relief and monastic charity mitigated famine. Terracing and irrigation expanded arable land; maize and potatoes became famine crops. Coastal shipping distributed grain between famine and surplus ports.

Political & Military Shocks

• Spanish decline: After Charles III’s reforms, misrule under Charles IV and Manuel de Godoy drew Spain into Napoleonic wars; the Peninsular War wrecked the economy and precipitated loss of nearly all American colonies by 1825, leaving only Cuba and Puerto Rico.

• Revolutionary upheavals: The Constitution of Cádiz (1812) heralded liberalism; Riego’s revolt (1820)reinstated it briefly before French intervention (1823) restored absolutism.

• Italian and Sardinian reorganization: Austrian dominance over Lombardy–Venetia and Savoyard expansion into Piedmont–Sardinia laid foundations for 19th-century nationalism.

• Portuguese transition: The royal family’s flight to Brazil (1807) and return (1821) transformed Lisbon’s empire; Brazilian independence (1822) ended Portugal’s golden age.

Transition

Between 1684 and 1827 CE, Southwest Europe evolved from Baroque monarchy to a crucible of Enlightenment reform, revolution, and imperial loss. Lisbon and Madrid, once capitals of world empires, faced contraction as Brazil and Spanish America broke free. Napoleonic invasion, liberal constitutions, and restorations alternated in dizzying succession. Yet from Porto’s terraces to Naples’ quays and Andorra’s valleys, resilient agrarian and maritime communities sustained cultural continuity. The age ended with monarchies restored but Enlightenment ideals—and Atlantic winds of change—irreversibly reshaping the destiny of Southern Europe.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1684–1827 CE): Enlightenment, Revolution, and Imperial Decline

The period 1684–1827 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe encompasses significant political, social, and economic transformations marked by Enlightenment reforms, revolutionary movements, and shifting imperial dynamics, profoundly influencing the future course of the region.

Shifts in Power and the Enlightenment

In the early eighteenth century, the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714) drastically reshapes the political landscape. Austria emerges as the dominant foreign power in Italy, replacing Spain, and the House of Savoy expands its influence into Piedmont and Sardinia. Despite these territorial adjustments, Spain retains its internal unity and much of its colonial empire, although its political power in Europe is significantly reduced.

Under Charles III of Spain (r. 1759–1788), Spain experiences a period of enlightened despotism, promoting economic and governmental reforms inspired by Enlightenment ideals. However, anticlericalism and aggressive state centralization provoke social and political tensions, and reforms falter without sustained royal patronage.

Spanish Decline and Colonial Losses

Spain’s economic and military decline accelerates under Charles IV (r. 1788–1807), whose rule is overshadowed by Manuel de Godoy, the influential and unpopular chief minister. Godoy's shifting alliances embroil Spain in the Napoleonic Wars, draining resources and weakening internal stability.

The Peninsular War (1808–1814) significantly disrupts Spanish governance. Napoleon’s imposition of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain provokes widespread resistance and guerrilla warfare, severely undermining French control and galvanizing Spanish nationalism. Following the war, Ferdinand VII regains the throne but struggles to reestablish authority, especially amidst attempts to reconquer rebellious American colonies.

By 1825, nearly all Spanish colonies in the Americas have achieved independence, leaving only Cuba and Puerto Rico under Spanish control. Spain’s failed military efforts to suppress these independence movements exacerbate its economic strain and internal divisions.

Revolutionary Turmoil and Liberal Aspirations

In 1820, Major Rafael de Riego leads a successful pronunciamiento, reinstating the liberal Constitution of 1812 and ushering in the Constitutional Triennium (1820–1823). The liberal reforms introduced during this period, advocating equality, centralized governance, and economic liberalism, face fierce conservative opposition.

In 1823, a French intervention, requested by Ferdinand VII and supported by European conservative powers, crushes the liberal government, restoring royal absolutism. Despite this setback, liberal ideals continue to influence Spain’s political discourse and revolutionary activities throughout the nineteenth century.

Italy's Evolving Political Landscape

Following the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), Italian regions undergo substantial territorial and political reorganizations. Northern and central Italy, previously part of Napoleonic client states, revert to traditional rulers, with Austria maintaining significant influence. Genoa’s integration into the Kingdom of Sardinia marks the end of its historic independence, reinforcing the House of Savoy’s regional power.

In southern Italy, regions that briefly flourished under Joachim Murat as king of Naples revert to Bourbon control, yet revolutionary sentiments and the influence of French Revolutionary ideals persist, sowing seeds for future conflicts and nationalist movements.

Stability in Andorra

Andorra maintains its traditional co-principality status, experiencing relative stability despite broader regional upheavals. The principality briefly experiences changes under Napoleonic rule but quickly reasserts its historical autonomy and economic independence in 1814.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

Throughout this period, cultural and intellectual life flourishes, notably in Italy, where Enlightenment and neoclassical ideas profoundly impact the arts. The painter Jacques-Louis David exemplifies the neoclassical revival, influencing European art through his studies and experiences in Rome.

Conclusion: A Region Transformed

From 1684 to 1827, Mediterranean Southwest Europe witnesses profound changes—Enlightenment reforms, revolutionary upheavals, and shifting imperial structures redefine political boundaries and cultural landscapes. These transformations set the stage for ongoing struggles between liberal and conservative forces, significantly shaping the region’s subsequent history.

Independence is slow to develop in the Viceroyalty of Peru despite the Tupac Amaru revolts.

For one thing, Peru is a conservative, royalist stronghold where the potentially restless Creole elites maintain a relatively privileged, if dependent, position in the old colonial system.

At the same time, the "anti-white" manifestations of the Tupac Amaru revolt demonstrate that the indigenous masses cannot easily be mobilized without posing a threat to the Creole caste itself.

Thus, when independence finally does come in 1824, it is largely a foreign imposition rather than a truly popular, indigenous, and nationalist movement.

As historian David P. Werlich has aptly put it, "Peru's role in the drama of Latin American independence was largely that of an interested spectator until the final act."

What the spectator witnesses prior to 1820 is a civil war in the Americas that pits dissident Creole elites in favor of independence against royalists loyal to the crown and the old colonial order.

The movement had erupted in reaction to Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain in 1808, which had deposed Ferdinand VII and placed a usurper, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne.

In America the civil war raises the question of the very political legitimacy of the colonial government.

When juntas arise in favor of the captive Ferdinand in various South American capitals (except in Peru) the following year, even though of relatively short duration, they touch off a process toward eventual separation that ebbs and flows throughout the continent over the next fifteen years.

This process develops its greatest momentum at the periphery of Spanish power in South America—in what becomes Venezuela and Colombia in the north and the Rio de la Plata region, particularly Argentina, in the south.

Not until both movements converge in Peru during the latter phases of the revolt is Spanish control of Peru seriously threatened.

The eleven-year period of civil war that marks the Mexican wars of independence is largely a byproduct of the crisis and breakdown of Spanish royal political authority throughout the American colonies.

A successful independence movement in the United States has demonstrated the feasibility of a republican alternative to the European crown.

For most politically articulate criollos, however, a strong cultural affinity with the mother country, a preference for stability and continuity, and alienation from Mexico's native and poor mestizo populations are significant disincentives to a radical break with the established order.

Dissatisfaction with peninsular administrative practices and anti-criollo discrimination at many levels of the colonial government and society are important foci of discontent, but beyond small pockets of radical conspirators, these grievances have not yet spawned a pronounced wave of pro-independence criollo sentiment at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

Most of the fighting by those seeking independence from Spain is done by isolated guerrilla bands from 1815 to 1821.

Out of these bands rise two men, Guadalupe Victoria (whose real name is Manuel Felix Fernandez) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca, both of whom are able to command allegiance and respect from their followers.

The Spanish viceroy, however, feels the situation is under control and issues a general pardon to every rebel who will lay down his arms.

Jose Maria Morelos Pavon assumes the leadership of the revolutionary movement after the death of Hidalgo.

Morelos takes charge of the political and military aspects of the insurrection and further plans a strategic move to encircle Mexico City and to cut communications to the coastal areas.

In June 1813, Morelos convokes a national congress of represen tatives from all of the provinces, which meets at Chilpancingo in the present-day state of Guerrero to discuss the future of Mexico as an independent nation.

The major points included in the document prepared by the congress are popular sovereignty, universal male suffrage, the adoption of Roman Catholicism as the official religion, abolition of slavery and forced labor, an end to government monopolies, and an end to corporal punishment.

Despite initial successes by Morelos's forces, however, the colonial authorities break the siege of Mexico City after six months, capture positions in the surrounding areas, and finally invade Chilpancingo.

Morelos is captured in 1815 and meets the same fate as Hidalgo.

From Guanajuato, the independence forces march on to Mexico City after having captured Zacatecas, San Luis Potosf, and Valladolid.

They encounter resistance at Monte de las Cruces on October 30, 1810, and, despite a rebel victory, lose momentum and do not take Mexico City.

After a few more victories, the revolutionary forces move north toward Texas.

The insurgents are ambushed in March of the following year and taken prisoner in Monclova (in the present-day state of Coahuila).

Hidalgo is tried as a priest by the Holy Office of the Inquisition and found guilty of heresy and treason.

He is later condemned to death.

Hidalgo is executed by firing squad on July 31, 1811.

His body is mutilated, and his head is displayed in Guanajuato as a warning to other would-be insur- gents.

The plans for the revolt are disclosed to the central government, and the conspirators are alerted that orders have been sent for their arrest.

Hidalgo, pressed by this new development, decides on September 16, 1810, to strike out for independence without delay (this date is celebrated as Mexico's independence day).

The church bells summon the people, and Hidalgo asks them to join him against the Spanish government and the peninsulares in the famous Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores): "Long live Our Lady of Guadalupe! Death to bad government! Death to the gachupinesl"

The crowd responds enthusiastically, and soon an angry mob is marching toward the regional capital of Guanajuato.

The miners of Guanajuato join with the native workers of Dolores in the massacre of all peninsulares who resist them, including the local intendente.