Sioux attack the Mandan village Nuptadi and set it on fire around 1785.

The "turtles" used in the Okipa ceremony are saved.

The Sioux will continue consolidating their dominant position on the northern plains.

Northeastern North America

(1828 to 1839 CE): Expansion, Industrialization, and Reform

From 1828 to 1839, Northeastern North America experienced extensive territorial expansion, industrial advancement, significant social reforms, and growing political tensions. This period was marked by the forced displacement of indigenous populations, rapid economic growth driven by new technologies, increasing labor unrest, and profound religious and social movements.

Territorial Changes and Indigenous Displacement

Indian Removal and the Trail of Tears

Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, authorizing President Andrew Jackson to negotiate treaties that exchanged Native American lands in the East for territories west of the Mississippi River. The forced relocations led to the Trail of Tears, during which approximately 2,000 to 8,000 of the over 16,000 Cherokee people perished. Many Seminoles in Florida resisted removal, resulting in prolonged conflict known as the Seminole Wars.

Iowa and Assiniboine Displacement

The Iowa ceded their lands in Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri to the U.S. government between 1820 and 1840, notably surrendering the Little Platte territory in Missouri in 1836. By 1837, most Iowa relocated to a reservation along the Kansas-Nebraska border, led by Chief Mahaska ("White Cloud"), settling alongside their longtime allies, the Sauk and Fox.

The Assiniboine suffered catastrophic population decline due to Eurasian diseases, notably smallpox, reducing their numbers from around 10,000 in the late 1700s to approximately 2,600 by 1890. Noted European and American painters, including Karl Bodmer and George Catlin, documented these tribes during this era.

Industrial Growth and Urban Development

Canals and the Rise of Rondout

Following the opening of the Delaware and Hudson Canal in 1828, Rondout transformed from farmland into a bustling maritime village, significantly driven by Irish laborers who initially came to dig the canal. This canal connected coal mines in northeastern Pennsylvania to New York City, prompting new industries like brick manufacturing, cement, bluestone shipping, and ice-making from Hudson River ice.

Lowell Mill Strikes and Labor Unrest

Significant labor unrest emerged, notably with the 1834 Lowell Mill strikes in Massachusetts, where textile workers sought shorter hours and better wages. Although unsuccessful, these strikes garnered national attention and inspired workers in other industrial towns. Throughout the 1830s, laborers across the Northeast increasingly organized against oppressive working conditions associated with rapid industrialization.

Technological and Economic Innovations

Steam Power and Railroad Expansion

Steam-powered transportation, especially steamboats and railroads, reshaped trade and travel. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, completed in 1830, significantly accelerated commerce and connected markets throughout the region. The Erie Canal continued to boost economic integration, linking frontier and urban markets efficiently.

Ice Harvesting and Refrigeration

Ice harvesting from the Hudson River became a crucial industry. Workers stored ice in warehouses insulated by straw, providing early refrigeration methods. This preserved ice supplied Rondout, Kingston, and Wilbur year-round.

Political Shifts and Tensions

Jacksonian Democracy and Bank War

President Andrew Jackson epitomized the era's populist politics. His successful 1832 reelection campaign slogan, "Jackson and no bank," led to the demise of the Second Bank of the United States in 1836, replaced by decentralized "pet banks." Jacksonian democracy also widened suffrage for white men, laying the foundation for the Second Party System, dominated by Democrats and Whigs from 1828 to 1854.

Canadian Border Conflicts

Border disputes with Canada included the Buckshot War (1838) and the Aroostook War (1838–1839), reflecting ongoing tensions with Britain over territorial claims.

Rebellions in Canada

The abortive Rebellions of 1837 in Canada highlighted demands for responsible government, leading to the influential Durham Report, recommending responsible governance and assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.

Social Movements and Religious Awakening

Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening (1790–1840) reached its zenith during this era, dramatically increasing membership in Baptist and Methodist congregations. Camp meetings and revivalist gatherings promoted evangelical Protestantism, inspiring widespread social reforms including abolitionism and temperance.

Abolitionism and Moral Reform

Abolitionist sentiment surged, particularly following the establishment of William Lloyd Garrison’s newspaper, The Liberator (1831). Religious revivalism fueled moral reform movements, striving to eradicate societal evils ahead of an anticipated millennial age.

Cultural and Economic Changes

Artistic Documentation of Native Peoples

European and American artists traveled extensively across the expanding frontier, documenting indigenous cultures through painting and sketches. This artistic endeavor created invaluable historical records of tribes like the Assiniboine during periods of profound change.

Rapid Urbanization and Population Growth

Cities such as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia experienced substantial growth, driven by immigration and economic opportunity. Columbia, South Carolina's new state capital, flourished after being connected to Charleston by the Santee Canal in 1800, reinforcing regional economic integration.

Legacy of the Era (1828–1839 CE)

From 1828 to 1839, Northeastern North America witnessed profound transformations driven by rapid industrialization, territorial expansion, political realignment, and significant social reforms. Although economic growth and technological innovations brought prosperity, they were coupled with intense social inequalities, harsh labor conditions, and widespread displacement of indigenous populations. This era set enduring patterns in American society, politics, and economy, foreshadowing escalating sectional conflicts and future struggles over slavery, labor rights, and indigenous sovereignty.

Noted European and American painters travel with traders, explorers, and expeditions for the opportunity to paint the West and its Native American peoples.

Among those who encounter and paint the Assiniboine from life are painters Karl Bodmer and George Catlin.

The Gros Ventres make contact with the German explorer and naturalist, Prince Maximilian, in 1832.

Along with the naturalist painter Karl Bodmer, the Europeans paint portraits and record their meeting with the Gros Ventres, near the Missouri River in Montana.

Prince Alexander Philipp Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied, born in 1782 at the end of the European Enlightenment, had become friends with two of its major figures: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, a major comparative anthropologist under whom he studied biological sciences, and Alexander von Humboldt, who served as Maximilian's mentor.

Prince Max had joined the Prussian army in 1802 during the Napoleonic War, rising to the rank of Major-General.

On retiring from the army in 1815, Wied had led an expedition to southeast Brazil from 1815 to 1817, on his return writing Reise nach Brasilien (1820-21) and Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte von Brasilien (1825-33).

In July 1832, accompanied by a huntsman and taxidermist, David Dreidoppel, and the twenty-three-year-old Swiss painter Karl Bodmer, Weid lands in Boston, intending to embark on a journey up the Missouri River, studying the cultures of tribes such as the Mandan and the Hidatsa as well as the flora and fauna of the area.

The three had encountered hardships and delays caused largely by a cholera epidemic in the eastern states that had swept across the north to Michigan.

It is not until October 8th that the three begin their journey down the Ohio River from Pittsburgh, arriving in Mt. Vernon, Indiana ten days later, then making their way to New Harmony.

Wied’s stay here is “prolonged by serious indisposition, nearly resembling cholera, to a four months’ winter residence.”

When the expedition is complete, Bodmer will return to Germany in 1834 with Prince Maximilian, then travel to Paris, where he will have many scenes from the expedition (eighty-one total) reproduced as aquatints.

The Prince will incorporate these images into his book, which will be published in London in 1839 as Reise in das Innere Nord-Amerikas (Travels in the Interior of North America).

Hidatsa tribal appearance and customs are documented by the visits of two artists of the American west.

The allied tribes are first visited by American George Catlin, who remains with them several months in 1832.

He is followed by Karl Bodmer, a Swiss painter accompanying German explorer Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied on a Missouri River expedition from 1832 to 1834.

Catlin and Bodmer's works record the Hidatsa and Mandan societies, where are rapidly changing under pressure from encroaching settlers, infectious disease, and government restraints.

Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied and Swiss artist Karl Bodmer stay with the Mandan during the winter months of 1833 and 1834.

Rudolph Friedrich Kurz travels the Northern Plains in the early 1851, encouraged by fellow Swiss artist Karl Bodmer.

He leaves an account as well as sketches of the Hidatsa and Mandan village tribes.

Born in 1818 in Bern, Switzerland to Johannes Kurz (who immigrated to Switzerland from the German city of Reutlingen in 1806 settling in Langnau, Canton Bern) and Maria Stooss, he attended drawing classes at the Bern gymnasium under Joseph Volmar.

In 1838 he travelled to Paris to further his studies; thereupon he met Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Bodmer.

Upon returning to Bern in 1842 he became head of painting class at the Fellenberg Institute in Hofwil.

Again he left Bern in 1846 for America.

Kurz's journals note and review the bustling frontier communities along the banks of Mississippi and Missouri.

He is unsuccessful in mining and and horse trading.

In 1850 he had married Witthae, daughter to Kirutshe, leader of an Iowa Indian group but the marriage did not last—Witthae ran away after two weeks, pining for her people.

Eventually, after four years of struggle to pay board and lodging, he meets Alexander Culbertson, formerly Superintendent of the defunct American Fur Company and now a special agent for the United States government, in Council Bluffs, in June 1851 and embarks the steamer St. Ange to Fort Berthold.

While Kurz works as a clerk for Culbertson, who is interpreter and special agent for government negotiations with the Plains tribes and plays a significant role negotiating the Treaty of Fort Laramie, also sketched scenes in the area, despite being told that the Mandan and Hidatsa people consider painting and drawing will bring ill luck.

Cholera breaks out among the Hidatsa and Mandan villages during the summer, and nearly everyone except the visiting Kurz becomes ill.

Blame for the sickness begins to focus upon the artist, so he flees to Fort Union on August 18, 1851.