Pope Innocent II

Sigurd, the first European king to go on crusade, had sailed for Palestine in support of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem with sixty ships, leaving his brother Eystein to rule Norway.

Having visited England, France, Spain, and Sicily on the way to Palestine, and fought against Moorish pirates off Lisbon and off the Balearic Islands, he arrives in the summer of 1110 at the court of the Norman ruler Roger II Guiscard of Sicily, on whom he bestows the title of king after enjoying the Count’s hospitality for some months.

(The title is not officially sanctioned; Roger will not be able to call himself king until 1130, when during an antipope schism he supports Anacletus II as pope instead of Innocent II, who flees to France, after which Anacletus crowns Roger King.)

Bernard of Clairvaux: The Cistercian Leader and Future Voice of Conservatism (1115 CE)

In 1115, the twenty-five-year-old Bernard, a Cistercian monk since 1113, was chosen abbot of Clairvaux, a newly founded daughter house of Cîteaux. Known thereafter as Bernard of Clairvaux, his forceful personality, spiritual devotion, and ascetic discipline drew numerous recruits to the reforming Cistercian monastic order, making him one of the most influential religious figures of the twelfth century.

Bernard and the Expansion of the Cistercian Order

• As abbot, Bernard established Clairvaux as a model of Cistercian reform, emphasizing simplicity, poverty, and strict monastic discipline, in contrast to the more opulent Cluniac tradition.
• His leadership helped fuel the rapid expansion of the Cistercian movement, as his reputation for holiness and theological rigor attracted new monks.
• Clairvaux became one of the most influential monasteries in medieval Europe, spreading Cistercian idealsacross the continent.

The Leading Voice of Religious Conservatism

Bernard would go on to play a crucial role as a conservative force in the intellectual revival of Western Europeknown as the Renaissance of the Twelfth Century:

• He opposed the rise of Scholasticism, which sought to reconcile reason with faith, clashing particularly with Peter Abelard, whom he condemned at the Council of Sens (1141).
• He emphasized mysticism and monastic spirituality over rational theological inquiry, reinforcing a traditionalist approach to religious thought.
• His writings on theology, devotion, and monastic life shaped medieval spirituality and influenced later mystics.

Political and Ecclesiastical Influence

• The Schism of 1130 – Bernard’s authority was instrumental in resolving the papal schism, ensuring victory for Pope Innocent II over the rival Antipope Anacletus II.
• The Second Crusade (1147–1149) – He became the most influential advocate of the Second Crusade, preaching across Europe and rallying support for the campaign.
• The Veneration of the Virgin Mary – Bernard was a key proponent of the growing Marian devotion in the medieval Church, shaping Catholic piety for centuries.

Legacy and Canonization

Bernard of Clairvaux’s impact on monasticism, theology, and medieval society was profound:

• He was canonized as a saint in 1174, only twenty-one years after his death.
• In 1830, he was declared a Doctor of the Church, recognizing his contributions to Catholic theology and mysticism.
• His writings and influence remain foundational in Cistercian spirituality and Christian mysticism.

Through his spiritual leadership, theological conservatism, and political influence, Bernard of Clairvaux shaped twelfth-century Christendom, leaving a legacy that endured far beyond his time.

Cardinal Pietro Pierleoni was born to the powerful Roman family of the Pierleoni, the son of the Consul Pier Leoni.

As a second son with ambitions, Pietro was destined for an ecclesiastical career.

He studied in Paris and entered the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny.

Later he went to Rome and occupied several important positions.

In 1130, Pope Honorius II lies dying and the cardinals decide that they willentrust the election to a commission of eight men, led by papal chancellor Haimeric, who has his candidate Cardinal Gregory Papareschi hastily elected as Pope Innocent II.

He is consecrated on February 14, the day after Honorius' death.

On the same day, the other cardinals announce that Innocent has not been canonically elected and choose, as Pope Anacletus II, Pierleoni, a Roman whose family members are the enemy of Haimeric's supporters, the Frangipani.

Anacletus' supporters are a mixture of anyone opposed to Haimeric, making him powerful enough to take control of Rome while Innocent is forced to flee North.

However, north of the Alps, Innocent gains the crucial support of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, Peter the Venerable, and other prominent reformers who personally help him to gain recognition from European rulers such as Emperor Lothar III, leaving Anacletus with few patrons.

Anacletus had been a relatively acceptable candidate for the Papacy, being well-respected, so rumors centering on his descent from a Jewish convert were spread to blacken his reputation.

Among Anacletus' supporters are duke William X of Aquitaine, who decides for Anacletus against the will of his own bishops, and the powerful Roger II of Sicily, whose title of "King of Sicily" Anacletus approves shortly after his accession.

George of Antioch, bilingual (in Greek and Arabic) and familiar with the Mediterranean, was soon working for Roger as an ambassador on missions to Fatimid Egypt.

Rising to the title of familiaris of the court, by 1123 he had risen to second in command in Christodulus' navy.

In the attack on Mahdia that year, George had captured the fortress of ad-Dimas, but the campaign had to be abandoned.

In the following five years, George had overshadowed Chrisotodulus and by 1127 had replaced him in the position of emir of Palermo.

In that year, both emirs were present at Montescaglioso with Count Roger, but Christodulus seems to have died soon thereafter.

George, his successor, has been instrumental in fully subduing independent-minded Apulia and Calabria in the years following Roger's succession there.

George had brought sixty ships to bear on besieged Bari in 1129, at that time rebellious under Prince Grimoald Alferanites.

Surrender had been forced, but Roger had pardoned the prince.

In 1131, Roger demands that the citizens of Amalfi turn over the keys to the castle as well as full control over their city's defenses.

The Amalfitans refuse, and Roger sends John of Palermo across the Strait of Messina to join up with a royal troop from Apulia and Calabria and march on Amalfi by land, while George of Antioch blockades the town by sea and sets up a base on Capri.

Amalfi soon capitulates.

The famous Bernard of Clairvaux, Innocent's champion, organizes a coalition against Anacletus and his "half-heathen king," plunging Roger into a ten-year war.

He is joined by Louis VI of France, Henry I of England, and Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor.

The Double Papal Election and Lothair II’s Decision (1130–1131 CE)

In 1130, the papal election resulted in a double election, with two rival claimants to the papacy:

1. Anacletus II, backed by the powerful Pierleoni family in Rome and King Roger II of Sicily.
2. Innocent II, who sought support from the Holy Roman Empire and Capetian France.

Both claimants campaigned for the support of Lothair II, King of the Romans, presenting him with a golden opportunity to reassert imperial control over the papacy. However, instead of immediately intervening, Lothair focused on dealing with the Hohenstaufen resistance in Germany, allowing his subordinates to decide on papal legitimacy.

Lothair II’s Support for Innocent II

• Anacletus II offered Lothair the Imperial crown, hoping to gain his recognition, but ultimately, Innocent II secured Lothair’s support.
• Lothair promised to escort Innocent II back to Rome, aiding him in overcoming Anacletus II’s control of the city.

In 1131, Lothair and Innocent II met at Liège, where:

• Lothair demonstrated submission to the pope, reinforcing the precedent that imperial authority was subordinate to papal legitimacy.
• Lothair requested the restoration of lay investiture, but Innocent ignored his request, refusing to return this power to the empire.
• Despite this, Lothair retained the rights secured by the Concordat of Worms (1122), ensuring that imperial influence over ecclesiastical appointments was not completely eroded.

The Agreement Against Roger II of Sicily and Lothair’s Second Coronation

• Innocent II sought military assistance from Lothair against King Roger II of Sicily, a key ally of Anacletus II.
• Lothair agreed to assist Innocent in the conflict, further entrenching his role as papal protector.
• In return, on March 29, 1131, Innocent II again crowned Lothair as King of the Romans, reinforcing his legitimacy.

Consequences of Lothair’s Decision

• Lothair’s alignment with Innocent II ensured that the Holy Roman Empire remained central to papal politics, but also affirmed papal supremacy over imperial authority.
• His failure to secure investiture rights marked a missed opportunity to restore imperial control over the Church.
• His military commitment against Roger II would later lead to his Italian campaigns, shaping the long-term conflict between the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Sicily.

Lothair’s decision in 1131 helped tilt the papal schism in favor of Innocent II, setting the stage for the final resolution of the double election and ensuring that the papacy remained politically entangled with imperial ambitions for decades to come.

Grimoald, Prince of Bari, had joined with Tancred of Conversano, an old ally and renegade, to rise up in revolt in 1131 and capture the port of Brindisi at Christmastime.

It takes until May 1132, after astronomic omens and papal urgings, for Roger to leave comfortable Sicily to go and deal with insurrection in Apulia.

A brief siege convinces the Bariots to give up their prince and Grimoald and his whole family are given over on the city's surrender.

The deposed prince is brought with his family to prison in Sicily and Tancred is only forgiven on condition he leave on Crusade.

Grimoald is replaced by Roger's own son, Tancred.

A majority of cardinals had elected Roman Cardinal Pietro Pierleoni, with the name of Anacletus II, to succeed Pope Honorius II in 1130, while a minority had elected Cardinal Gregorio Papareschi (Innocent II) as successor.

The consecrated of both claimants on February 23 led to a serious schism.

Anacletus, backed by most Romans and by the Frangipani family, had forced Innocent to flee from Rome to France, where he was supported by Bernard of Clairvaux, who had attacked Anacletus' Jewish ancestry.

Although Anacletus had allied with the ambitious and powerful Roger II after investing him as king of Sicily in 1130, Innocent's supporters, including the emperors Lothair III and John II Comnenus, wield overwhelming power.

The Council of Étampes, convoked by King Louis VI in 1130 to decide the legitimacy of the papal succession, had chosen Innocent.

In 1132, Lothair, accompanied by Innocent and Bernard, leads a German army into Italy and, by early summer, occupies all Rome except that section held by the Anacletans.

Roger II of Sicily sends Robert II of Capua and Ranulf II of Alife to Rome in midsummer 1132 in a show of force in support of the antipope Anacletus.

While they are away, Roger's half-sister Matilda, the wife of Ranulf, flees to Roger, claiming abuse.

Simultaneously, Roger annexes Ranulf's brother's County of Avellino.

Ranulf demands the restitution of both wife and countship.

Both are denied, and Ranulf leaves Rome against orders, with Robert following.

The disaffected Ranulf II has mustered a large force with his ally, Robert II.

The rebels mass outside of Benevento and this city, usually faithful to Roger II, gives in.