Israel falls in 722 BCE to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser, ruler of a mighty military empire centered on the upper Tigris River.

As a result, the Israelites are deported from their country.

Judah preserves its political independence as a tributary of Assyria, while the rest of the Jordan region is divided into Assyrian-controlled provinces that serve as a buffer to contain the desert tribes—a function that will be assigned to the area by a succession of foreign rulers.

Tiglath Pileser, after taking Arpad in 740 BCE and defeating a northern Syrian coalition two years later, compels all Syrian princes and the small states of eastern Anatolia to pay tribute.

Annexing vassal states, he makes them into Assyrian provinces.

The Middle East: 729–718 BCE

Tiglath-Pileser III and the Height of Assyrian Expansion

By 729 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser III has successfully ushered Assyria into its final and most expansive phase of imperial conquest, dominating vast regions across Syria, Palestine, and into Arabia. His military campaigns have decisively established Assyrian dominance, effectively laying the foundations of what is often called the Second Assyrian Empire.

To celebrate and immortalize his military triumphs, Tiglath-Pileser commissions elaborate bas-reliefs for his new royal residence at Nimrud (ancient Kalhu). These monumental sculptures vividly depict his victories, each inscribed with detailed annals narrating his campaigns, serving both as royal propaganda and as lasting testament to Assyrian power. (This palace, known as the "Central Palace," will later be dismantled by the Assyrian king Esarhaddon.)

Consolidation of Babylonia and Assyria

Facing increasing unrest from Babylonia, particularly threats from Chaldean tribes intent on rebellion, Tiglath-Pileser acts swiftly in 729 or 728 BCE. To neutralize these threats, he seizes direct control of the Babylonian throne, uniting Assyria and Babylonia into a single imperial domain. In Babylon, Tiglath-Pileser rules under his personal name, Pulu, as recorded in biblical sources (II Kings 15:19; I Chronicles 5:26). This political unification stabilizes the southern frontiers, but it also sets a critical precedent for future Assyrian policy toward Babylonia.

Transition to Shalmaneser V

Tiglath-Pileser III dies soon afterward, in 727 BCE, having irrevocably shaped Assyria's trajectory toward its ultimate zenith. His successor is Ululayu, believed to be his son, previously known as the governor of Zimirra in Phoenicia. Upon his accession, Ululayu assumes the royal name Shalmaneser V (rendered in Akkadian as Shulmanu-asharid, though the name Shalmaneser is familiar through biblical accounts). Shalmaneser V inherits an empire at its greatest extent, yet also faces the immense challenge of preserving the vast territories and complex administrative structure forged by his predecessor.

Thus, the period from 729 to 718 BCE marks a critical era of Assyrian history, defined by Tiglath-Pileser's final achievements and the subsequent challenges faced by Shalmaneser V in managing the sprawling empire.

Tiglath-Pileser III has inaugurated the last and greatest phase of Assyrian expansion, having subjected Syria and Palestine to his rule, his conquests having paved the way for the establishment of the Second Assyrian Empire.

He has engraved his royal annals across the bas-reliefs depicting his military achievements on the sculptured slabs decorating the royal palace he has built for himself in Nimrud (the so-called "central palace" later to be dismantled by Esarhaddon).

He seizes the increasingly belligerent Babylonian throne in 729 or 728  to forestall a Chaldean-led rebellion.

He merges the kingdoms of Assyria and Babylonia, using his personal (or perhaps Babylonian) name of Pulu (II Kings 15:19; I Chronicles 5:26).

He dies soon afterward in 727, having set Assyria on the road it is to follow to its end.

He is succeeded by Ululayu, probably his son, who had first appeared as governor of Zimirra in Phoenicia and who now takes the name Shalmaneser V. (The name Shalmaneser is used for him in the Bible; his name in Akkadian cuneiform is actually Shulmanu-asharid.)

Near East (729–718 BCE): The Fall of Samaria and Nubian Expansion

The Fall of the Kingdom of Israel

King Hoshea of Israel, encouraged by Egypt, attempts to break free from Assyrian domination. In retaliation, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser V personally leads his forces into Israel in 724 BCE, besieging the Israelite capital, Samaria, and attacking the city of Tyre. After a three-year siege, Samaria falls in 722 BCE. Shalmaneser, however, dies shortly before the capture, and his successor, Sargon II, claims credit for the city's conquest, deporting over twenty-seven thousand inhabitants to Syria—marking the historical disappearance of the "ten lost tribes" of Israel.

Sargon II’s Consolidation

After the capture of Samaria, Sargon II refounds the city as the Assyrian province of Samerina, repopulating it with settlers from Babylon, Cuthah, Avva, Hamath, and Sepharvaim. He also conquers the Philistine city of Gaza, destroys Rafah, and secures a decisive victory against Egyptian forces. However, the Assyrian siege of Tyre, aided by Phoenician mainland cities, ends unsuccessfully after five years, with Assyrian forces withdrawing in 720 BCE.

Nubian Dominance in Egypt

In Egypt, Piye, the ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Kush, exploits internal divisions to extend his influence northward. In response to the alliance formed by Tefnakht of Sais among Delta rulers, Piye launches a successful military campaign in his twentieth regnal year, which he views as a holy war dedicated to Amun. Piye swiftly captures Herakleopolis, Hermopolis, and the ancient capital of Memphis, securing the submission of Delta rulers, including Iuput II of Leontopolis and Osorkon IV of Tanis. Tefnakht ultimately submits indirectly, maintaining nominal independence in Lower Egypt after Piye's withdrawal to Nubia.

Egyptian Fragmentation and Twenty-fourth Dynasty

Following the collapse of Egypt’s Twenty-second Dynasty with the death of Shoshenq V around 720 BCE, Lower Egypt splinters into city-states controlled by local kings. Prominent among these is Tefnakht I, who establishes himself as the "Great Chief of the West" and the founding ruler of Egypt’s short-lived Twenty-fourth Dynasty based in Sais. Although nominally submitting to Piye, Tefnakht soon declares independence and asserts himself as a king.

Legacy of the Era

The era 729–718 BCE witnesses significant shifts in power dynamics in the Near East, marked by the dramatic collapse of the northern Kingdom of Israel under Assyrian conquest and the rise of Nubian authority over a fragmented Egypt. These events reshape regional politics profoundly, setting the stage for ongoing interactions and confrontations among emerging powers, particularly Assyria and the Kushite dynasty in Egypt.

King Hoshea of Israel attempts, with encouragement by Egypt, to rid his country of Assyrian rule (2 Kings 17).

In response, Assyrian forces, personally led by Shalmaneser V, invade Israel in 724 via Bit-Adini to besiege the capital city of Samaria and …

…attack Tyre.

Shalmaneser lays siege for three years, until he breaks “the resistance of Shamara'in” (Samaria).

He dies shortly before the capture of the city, however, and is succeeded by Sargon II, who takes credit for the destruction of Samaria in 722 and the deportation, to Syria, of twenty seven thousand two hundred and ninety of its inhabitants.

What happened to Hoshea following the end of the kingdom of Israel, and when or where he died, is unknown.

The exiles become known to history as the ten lost tribes of Israel.

Osorkon IV is perhaps mentioned in the bible as the Pharaoh "So" to whom Hoshea, King of Israel appealed for help.

So, however, dispatched no aid or troops.

After the capture of the Israelite capital in 722 BCE by Shalmaneser V, Osorkon, to avoid military conflict with the Assyrians or even invasion, sends presents, including several horses, to placate the new Assyrian king, Sargon II.

Osorkon's tactic apparently works, since Sargon accepts his gifts and does not take action against him.

Near East (717–706 BCE): Religious and Political Transformations

Syncretism and the Rise of Samaritan Identity

After the fall of Samaria, its new inhabitants—colonists from diverse parts of the Assyrian Empire—initially worship their own deities. According to later Jewish tradition, when dangerous wild animals infest the region, these colonists appeal to the Assyrian king for priests from Israel to instruct them on how to worship the local god, Yahweh. This leads to the emergence of a syncretistic form of religion, blending the worship of Yahweh with their original gods. Today's Samaritans, who regard themselves as descendants of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, continue to honor the Pentateuch as their sacred scripture and worship at Mount Gerizim. Modern genetic studies confirm Samaritan claims of Israelite lineage through male ancestors, with maternal lines indicating Assyrian and other foreign origins.

Nubian Religious Revival: The Shabaka Stone

During the reign of Pharaoh Shabaka of Egypt’s Nubian Twenty-fifth Dynasty, a significant religious artifact known as the Shabaka Stone is produced. Discovered by Shabaka himself at the temple of Ptah in Memphis, this slab records the deteriorating text of an ancient papyrus. The Shabaka Stone preserves the Memphite Theology, a sophisticated religious doctrine elevating Ptah, god of craftsmen, as the creator of all existence. According to this theology, Ptah conceives all things mentally and brings them into existence by speech—a concept reflecting a high level of abstraction and philosophical sophistication in Egyptian religious thought.

Moab Under Assyrian Influence

Moab, despite linguistic and cultural affinities with its Israelite neighbors, faces religious and political marginalization from Judahite society. This isolation is underscored by scriptural prohibitions (Deuteronomy 23:3-6) and prophetic denunciations (Isaiah 25:10). By the late eighth century BCE, Moab becomes a tributary of Assyria, signaling its integration into the expanding Assyrian sphere of influence.

Religious and Political Reforms in Judah

The fall of the northern kingdom deeply influences the southern kingdom of Judah, prompting religious introspection and political caution. Under King Hezekiah, who succeeds Ahaz in 715 BCE, Judah initiates significant religious reforms aimed at eradicating Canaanite religious practices and reaffirming the worship of Yahweh. These reforms contrast sharply with Ahaz's earlier policies, which had subjected Judah to Assyrian dominance. The prophet Isaiah resumes his activity during this period, addressing Hezekiah’s political efforts to extricate Judah from Assyrian suzerainty, notably during a failed rebellion involving Tyre and Sidon against Sargon II in 710 BCE.

Cyprus and the Assyrian Hegemony

In 709 BCE, Cyprus submits to Assyrian King Sargon II, who consolidates his regional authority by erecting a stela at Citium. Seven Cypriot city-kings—Curium, Paphos, Marion, Soli, Lapithos, Salamis, and Amathus—formally acknowledge his dominance. Subsequent Assyrian records add four more kingdoms—Citium, Kyrenia, Tamassos, and Idalium—to the list of tributary states. Although nominal, this acknowledgment underscores the broad reach of Assyrian imperial power, which extends over Cyprus until approximately 663 BCE.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 717 to 706 BCE is marked by profound transformations in religion and politics across the Near East. The emergence of Samaritan identity, theological innovation in Nubian-controlled Egypt, and Judah’s religious reforms under Hezekiah significantly shape the cultural and political landscape. Meanwhile, Assyria’s expanding influence, exemplified by its dominance over Moab and Cyprus, sets the stage for further imperial entanglements and cultural exchanges in the region.