The Julio-Claudian and Flavian Dynasties: Rome’s First Imperial Families (27 BCE – 96 CE)

The Julio-Claudian dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of Rome, consisting of Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius), Claudius, and Nero. It ruled the Roman Empire from its founding in 27 BCE until 68 CE, when Nero’s suicide plunged Rome into civil war.

The Fall of the Julio-Claudians and the Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE)

• Nero’s reign (54–68 CE) ended in rebellion, loss of support from the Senate and the Praetorian Guard, and his forced suicide in 68 CE.
• His death left no clear successor, triggering the Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE)—a chaotic struggle for power.
• Four emperors—Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian—each ruled briefly, until Vespasian emerged victorious, establishing the Flavian dynasty.

The Flavian Dynasty (69–96 CE)

The Flavian dynasty consisted of:

1. Vespasian (69–79 CE) – Restored stability after the civil war, reformed the economy, and initiated major building projects, including the Colosseum.
2. Titus (79–81 CE) – Best known for the destruction of Pompeii (79 CE) during Vesuvius' eruption and completing the Colosseum.
3. Domitian (81–96 CE) – A strong but autocratic ruler, assassinated in 96 CE due to Senatorial opposition.

The Rise of Nerva and the Adoption of Trajan

• After Domitian’s assassination, the Senate appointed Nerva (96–98 CE), an elderly, childless senator, as emperor.
• However, his lack of military support led to unrest, and in 97 CE, a revolt by the Praetorian Guard forced him to adopt Trajan, a widely respected general, as his heir.
• This marked the beginning of the adoptive succession system, leading to the "Five Good Emperors" period (96–180 CE).

Significance of the Dynastic Transition

• The Julio-Claudian dynasty established the principle of imperial rule, but ended in instability and civil war.
• The Flavian dynasty restored order and prosperity, strengthening the empire after the chaos of 69 CE.
• Nerva’s adoption of Trajan set a new precedent for choosing capable successors, ushering in one of Rome’s most prosperous eras.

The transition from Julio-Claudians to Flavians and eventually to Nerva and Trajan demonstrates Rome’s ability to survive dynastic crises, ensuring the continued strength of the empire.

The Pax Romana: A Period of Relative Peace with Continuous Warfare (27 BCE – 180 CE)

The Pax Romana (Latin for "Roman Peace") was a period of relative stability and minimal expansion by military force, experienced by the Roman Empire during the first and second centuries CE. However, while large-scale wars were reduced, military conflicts never fully ceased, as Rome still faced rebellions, frontier wars, and military campaigns throughout the empire.

Major Conflicts During the Pax Romana

Although the Pax Romana signified internal stability and the absence of major civil wars, Rome remained engaged in military operations to defend or expand its borders. Some of the most notable conflicts included:

1. The Roman Invasion of Britain and the Boudican Revolt (43–61 CE)

• In 43 CE, Emperor Claudius ordered the invasion of Britain, led by General Aulus Plautius.
• Rome gradually conquered native tribes, but in 60–61 CE, the Iceni queen Boudica led a massive uprising against Roman rule.
• Her forces destroyed Roman settlements, including Londinium (London), Camulodunum (Colchester), and Verulamium (St Albans).
• The rebellion was ultimately crushed by Governor Suetonius Paulinus, restoring Roman control.

2. The Jewish War (66–73 CE) and the Fall of Jerusalem

• The province of Judaea, once a client-kingdom, became a Roman province in 6 CE.
• In 66 CE, Jewish rebels rose up against Roman rule, sparking the First Jewish-Roman War.
• Roman forces, led by Vespasian and later his son Titus, besieged and destroyed Jerusalem in 70 CE, including the Second Temple.
• The final Jewish stronghold at Masada fell in 73 CE, ending the revolt.

3. The Batavian Revolt (69–70 CE) in Germania Inferior

• In 69 CE, the Batavi and allied Germanic and Gallic tribes rebelled against Rome in the province of Germania Inferior (modern Netherlands).
• Led by Julius Civilis, the Batavi briefly overran Roman forts and cut off legions.
• The uprising was ultimately suppressed by General Quintus Petillius Cerialis, restoring Roman authority.

4. The Dacian Wars (Domitian’s Campaigns, 85–88 CE)

• The Dacians, under King Decebalus, invaded Moesia (in the Balkans) during the reign of Emperor Domitian.
• Rome launched counteroffensives, but Decebalus remained a formidable opponent, forcing Domitian to accept a peace settlement in 89 CE.
• Later, during Emperor Trajan’s reign, Rome would fully conquer Dacia (101–106 CE), incorporating it as a Roman province.

Significance of the Pax Romana and its Military Campaigns

• While the Pax Romana reduced large-scale warfare, Rome still engaged in military conflicts to secure its frontiers, suppress rebellions, and expand its control.
• The period saw fewer civil wars, enabling the empire to focus on infrastructure, economy, and governance.
• The Roman legions remained active, ensuring stability in regions where resistance to Roman rule persisted.

The Pax Romana (27 BCE – 180 CE) was thus a relative peace rather than an absolute one, demonstrating that even at the height of its power, Rome relied on military force to maintain and expand its empire.

Eastern Southeast Europe (45 BCE–99 CE): Roman Consolidation and Provincial Integration

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Full Integration into the Roman Empire

Between 45 BCE and 99 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe became thoroughly integrated into the Roman Empire, encompassing present-day Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, and the European part of modern-day Turkey. Roman settlement policies promoted urbanization, establishing new cities and significantly expanding existing urban centers, such as Byzantium and Philippopolis (modern-day Plovdiv). Emperor Octavian expelled the Getae from lands south of the Danube, although they continued to periodically interfere in Roman affairs.

Stability and Population Growth

Roman rule fostered regional stability, encouraging population growth, agricultural expansion, and economic prosperity. Settlements flourished along well-developed road networks, ports, and urban administrative centers, facilitating the integration of local populations into the imperial economy and culture.

Economic and Technological Developments

Roman Infrastructure and Economic Expansion

Extensive Roman infrastructure projects, including roads, aqueducts, and ports, substantially enhanced trade efficiency and economic integration. The establishment of agricultural estates (latifundia) and expanded mining operations, particularly gold and silver mines in the territories controlled by the Getae, further increased economic productivity and imperial revenue.

Technological Innovation

Roman technological advancements significantly influenced regional productivity and infrastructure development. Innovations in agricultural tools, including iron plowshares and implements first developed by the Getae, construction techniques, and hydraulic engineering improved agricultural yields, urban amenities, and overall economic resilience.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Flourishing of Roman-Hellenistic Culture

This era marked the flourishing of cultural synthesis between Roman and Hellenistic traditions. Artistic expression, architecture, and public monuments exhibited sophisticated combinations of Roman practicality and Hellenistic aesthetic traditions, exemplified by civic structures, temples, and amphitheaters.

Indigenous Cultural Adaptation

Indigenous Thracian, Dacian, and local Balkan traditions continued alongside Roman cultural practices. Traditional crafts, such as pottery, metalwork, and textile production, persisted, incorporating Roman techniques and motifs, thus reflecting cultural resilience and adaptive integration.

Social and Religious Developments

Provincial Governance and Social Structure

Roman administrative organization transformed regional governance, establishing provinces governed by appointed Roman officials. Local elites, including leaders among the Getae, were increasingly integrated into imperial structures, adopting Roman citizenship, customs, and public duties, significantly reshaping societal structures.

Religious Syncretism and Imperial Cult

Religious life continued to diversify, blending traditional local, Greek, and Roman religious practices. The imperial cult emerged prominently, with widespread veneration of Roman emperors as deities alongside existing religious traditions, exemplifying cultural and religious syncretism.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 45 BCE to 99 CE was pivotal in consolidating Roman rule and integrating Eastern Southeast Europe into the broader imperial framework. These developments established enduring administrative structures, economic systems, and cultural traditions that profoundly influenced regional identities and historical trajectories well into subsequent centuries. The military ambitions of figures such as Emperor Trajan, who ascended in 98 CE with a determination to subdue the Getae and exploit their rich gold and silver mines, exemplified the strategic significance of the region within the Roman Empire.

Decebalus has by CE 87 established a new Getian state, constructed a system of fortresses, and outfitted an army.

When Trajan becomes Roman emperor in 98, he is determined to stamp out the Getian menace and take over the Getae's gold and silver mines.

The Romans lay down a road along the Danube and bridge the river near today's Drobeta-Turnu Severin.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (45 BCE–99 CE): From Republic's End to Imperial Stability

The age 45 BCE–99 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe—encompassing Italy, southern and eastern Iberia, Andorra, and all Western Mediterranean islands except Corsica—marks Rome's profound shift from a collapsing republic to a stabilized imperial power. This transformative era encompasses pivotal military confrontations, sweeping political reforms, expansive colonization, and influential cultural achievements.

Caesar’s Dictatorship and the Fall of the Republic (45–34 BCE)

This era begins with Julius Caesar's final victories and his controversial assumption of lifelong dictatorship, swiftly followed by his assassination in 44 BCE. The resulting power vacuum triggers intense political struggles, culminating in the formation of the Second Triumvirate. Antony and Octavian’s victory at Philippi extinguishes the republican cause, setting the stage for imperial governance. Over subsequent centuries, Rome will expand into a vast empire stretching from Britain to Persia, blending Greek, Roman, and other cultures into a unique civilization.

Augustus's Rise and Rome’s Imperial Establishment (33–22 BCE)

After Antony and Cleopatra's decisive defeat at Actium in 31 BCE, Octavian, soon titled Augustus, establishes undisputed imperial authority. His principate initiates the Pax Romana, an era of remarkable peace and prosperity. Augustus implements significant administrative reforms and fosters provincial integration, fundamentally transforming Roman governance. His reign is later celebrated as a golden age.

Urban Expansion and Foundation of Caesaraugusta (21–10 BCE)

Strategically reinforcing Rome’s dominance, Augustus founds veteran colonies, notably Caesaraugusta (modern Zaragoza) in Iberia, around 25–12 BCE. Romanization rapidly progresses, with Hispania divided into multiple separately governed provinces. Iberian elites and urban oligarchs become integrated into Roman aristocracy, actively participating in imperial governance.

Augustan Reforms and the Pax Romana (9 BCE–3 CE)

Augustus deepens administrative and infrastructural consolidation, reinforcing Roman cultural identity and political cohesion. His reforms bolster economic prosperity and stability, establishing foundational precedents for imperial administration. Iberia, called Hispania, flourishes economically, exporting goods such as gold, wool, olive oil, and wine, becoming a crucial granary alongside North Africa.

Cultural Achievements and International Diplomacy (4–15 CE)

This period is marked by major literary achievements, notably Ovid’s Metamorphoses, alongside critical debates regarding luxury imports such as silk. Diplomatic interactions, possibly including envoys from China, illustrate Rome's expansive geopolitical influence.

Stability and Challenges under Tiberius (16–27 CE)

Augustus’s successor, Tiberius, initially maintains stability but increasingly isolates himself from public and senatorial life, inadvertently fostering political anxiety. Despite growing unease, the empire's administrative and economic systems remain robust.

Political Instability and Caligula’s Reign (28–39 CE)

Tiberius’s reclusiveness exacerbates political tensions, resulting in Caligula’s tumultuous ascension. Initially promising renewal, Caligula's increasingly erratic governance plunges the empire into instability and controversy.

Claudius’s Stabilizing Influence (40–51 CE)

Caligula’s assassination leads to Claudius’s unexpected but stabilizing reign. Claudius initiates substantial administrative reforms, oversees territorial expansion into Britain, and fosters cultural and infrastructural development, significantly strengthening imperial governance.

Artistic Innovations and Cultural Vibrancy (52–63 CE)

Cultural life flourishes, exemplified by richly decorated Roman sarcophagi and literary advancements. Scientific and technological advancements include sophisticated techniques for working with materials such as mercury, antimony, and arsenic-based compounds, as documented by Pliny the Elder and Dioscorides.

Nero’s Turbulent Rule and Artistic Developments (64–75 CE)

Amid Nero's controversial reign, highlighted by extravagance and the devastating Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, artistic achievements continue. The fourth style of Roman wall painting emerges, reflecting both cultural refinement and the complexities of Nero’s leadership.

Flavian Dynasty’s Consolidation and Prosperity (76–87 CE)

The Flavian dynasty, initiated by Vespasian, restores stability after Nero’s chaotic rule. Significant architectural achievements, notably the Colosseum’s completion under Titus, symbolize imperial renewal. The eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE profoundly impacts Roman society, providing invaluable historical insights.

Domitian’s Rule and Nerva’s Stabilizing Reforms (88–99 CE)

Domitian’s authoritarianism culminates in his assassination in 96 CE, ushering in Nerva's short but influential reign. Nerva restores political balance, implements essential reforms, and secures imperial succession through merit-based adoption of Trajan, significantly shaping future governance practices.

Legacy of the Age

The period from 45 BCE–99 CE permanently transforms Mediterranean Southwest Europe, solidifying Rome’s transition from Republic to Empire. Significant cultural advancements, administrative reforms, territorial integration, and profound political shifts decisively influence Rome’s enduring legacy, laying foundations for centuries of imperial strength and cohesion.

Romanization of the Iberians proceeds quickly after their conquest.

Called Hispania by the Romans, Spain is not one political entity but is divided into three separately governed provinces (these will be come nine provinces by the fourth century CE).

More important, Spain will for more than four hundred be years part of a cosmopolitan world empire bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.

Iberian tribal leaders and urban oligarchs are admitted into the Roman aristocratic class, and they participate in governing Spain and the empire.

The latifundios (sing., latifundio), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, are superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.

The Romans improve existing cities, establish Zaragoza, Mérida, and Valencia, and provides amenities throughout the empire.

Spain's economy expands under Roman tutelage.

Spain, along with North Africa, serves as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbors export gold, wool, olive oil, and wine.

Agricultural production increases with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use.

The Hispano-Romans—the romanized Iberians and the Iberian-born descendants of Roman soldiers and colonists—have all achieved the status of full Roman citizenship by the end of the first century CE.

The emperors Trajan (r. 98-117), Hadrian (r. 117-38), and Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-80) will be born in Spain.

The Romanization of the Iberians accelerates rapidly following their conquest. The region, known to the Romans as Hispania, is not a single political entity but is divided into three separately governed provinces, a number that will expand to nine by the fourth century CE.

More significantly, for over four centuries, Hispania remains an integral part of a cosmopolitan Roman world empire, bound together by law, language, and an extensive network of Roman roads.

Integration into the Roman World

Iberian tribal leaders and urban oligarchs are incorporated into the Roman aristocracy, gaining influence in the governance of both Hispania and the broader empire. The latifundia (sing. latifundio)—large estates controlled by the aristocracy—are superimposed onto the existing Iberian landholding system, reinforcing a social and economic hierarchy that will endure for centuries.

The Romans enhance existing cities and establish new urban centers, including Zaragoza, Mérida, and Valencia. Roman infrastructure, including roads, aqueducts, and public buildings, brings new amenities and services to the region.

Economic Expansion Under Roman Rule

Under Roman administration, Spain’s economy flourishes. Alongside North Africa, Hispania serves as a major granary for the Roman market, supplying essential goods such as grain, gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural productivity is further improved through Roman-engineered irrigation projects, some of which remain in use today.

Hispano-Romans and the Path to Citizenship

By the end of the first century CE, the Hispano-Romans—a population comprising Romanized Iberians and the descendants of Roman soldiers and settlers born in Hispania—have achieved full Roman citizenship.

Hispania also plays a key role in shaping the Roman Empire’s leadership, producing some of its most notable emperors, including:

• Trajan (r. 98–117 CE),
• Hadrian (r. 117–138 CE), and
• Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 CE).

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (88–99 CE): Domitian’s Authoritarianism and the Nerva Transition

The era 88–99 CE encompasses the later years of Emperor Domitian’s reign and the subsequent rise of Emperor Nerva, reflecting significant political shifts and enduring cultural developments within the Roman Empire.

Domitian’s Increasing Authoritarianism

By the late 80s CE, Domitian exhibits increasingly authoritarian and paranoid behavior, implementing severe measures against perceived political threats. His reign becomes marked by suspicion, extensive use of informants, and heightened senatorial persecution, deeply alienating Rome’s political elite.

Despite his authoritarian governance, Domitian continues significant administrative and infrastructural projects, including urban renewal and strengthening frontier defenses. These efforts reflect his commitment to maintaining imperial stability, albeit through increasingly oppressive means.

Domitian’s Assassination (96 CE)

In 96 CE, Domitian’s increasingly tyrannical rule culminates in his assassination through a conspiracy involving court officials and members of the Praetorian Guard. His death concludes the Flavian dynasty and ushers in a critical transitional period, demonstrating the volatility of imperial succession and the empire’s susceptibility to internal strife.

Rise of Nerva and Restoration of Stability

Following Domitian’s assassination, the Senate swiftly elevates the respected elder statesman Nerva as emperor. Nerva’s reign, beginning in 96 CE, marks a return to moderate governance, prioritizing reconciliation and political stability after the turmoil of Domitian’s final years.

Nerva initiates critical reforms aimed at restoring senatorial privileges, improving public welfare, and stabilizing financial administration. His conciliatory and balanced leadership significantly restores public and senatorial trust in imperial governance.

Cultural Continuity and Literary Developments

Culturally, the era continues to thrive, reflecting Rome’s resilience despite political uncertainties. Literary activity flourishes under Nerva’s brief but stabilizing rule, sustaining Rome’s rich intellectual tradition. Historians and writers of the period document and analyze these dramatic political transitions, shaping historical perspectives for subsequent generations.

Adoption of Trajan and Securing Imperial Succession

In a decisive political move, Nerva adopts the competent and popular general Trajan as his successor in 97 CE. This adoption establishes a precedent for choosing emperors based on merit rather than hereditary succession, significantly influencing imperial succession practices and future stability.

Legacy of the Era

The period 88–99 CE, marked by Domitian’s authoritarian final years and the stabilizing transition under Nerva, profoundly impacts Roman governance and succession traditions. The reforms initiated during this era, coupled with cultural continuity, lay crucial foundations for Rome’s subsequent imperial success and societal resilience.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (88–99 CE): Roman Provincial Stability, Economic Vitality, and Cultural Continuity

Between 88 and 99 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—encompassing northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Spain south of the Franco-Spanish border (43.05548° N, 1.22924° W)—remained stable and prosperous under late Flavian rule and the transition to Emperor Nerva's brief administration (96–98 CE), concluding with the accession of Trajan in 98 CE. Continued administrative stability, sustained economic prosperity, deepened Mediterranean integration, and ongoing cultural vitality characterized the era. Indigenous communities maintained resilient identities, adapting dynamically within the enduring Roman provincial framework.

Political and Military Developments

Continued Provincial Stability under Late Flavian and Nerva's Rule

• Under Emperor Domitian and subsequently Emperor Nerva, Atlantic Southwest Europe maintained steady provincial governance, unaffected significantly by distant imperial transitions. Efficient provincial administration, supported by established military garrisons, fortified settlements, urban centers, and advanced infrastructure, ensured continued peace and prosperity.

• Local tribal elites remained integrated into Roman administrative structures, contributing significantly to regional stability and effective governance.

Full Northern Tribal Integration

• Northern tribes such as the Gallaeci, Astures, and Cantabri continued their stable integration within Roman provincial administration, maintaining peace, regional autonomy, and economic prosperity through diplomatic cooperation.

• The Vascones retained their diplomatic neutrality, effectively preserving territorial autonomy, cultural identity, and internal stability within the stable provincial environment.

Economic and Technological Developments

Heightened Economic Prosperity and Mediterranean Trade

• Economic prosperity persisted, reinforcing the region’s integration into Mediterranean trade networks. Atlantic Southwest Europe exported metals (silver, copper, tin), agricultural produce, timber, salt, textiles, livestock products, and significant numbers of slaves, while importing luxury items, fine ceramics, wine, olive oil, and advanced iron products.

• Provincial elites and urban centers significantly benefited economically, reinforcing social stratification, specialization, and regional dependence on Mediterranean commerce.

Persistent Centrality of Slave Labor

• Slavery remained foundational within regional economic structures, extensively employed in mining, agriculture, domestic labor, artisanal production, and urban infrastructure. The robust slave trade embedded slavery deeply within regional economic and social structures, profoundly influencing societal hierarchies.

Continued Technological and Infrastructural Advancements

• Metallurgical innovation, particularly in ironworking, continued to enhance agricultural productivity, artisanal craftsmanship, and regional economic growth. Skilled artisans produced sophisticated weaponry, armor, agricultural implements, and decorative objects, blending indigenous techniques with Roman technologies.

• Roman infrastructure—including roads, aqueducts, bridges, urban centers, and fortifications—continued expanding, reinforcing provincial stability, economic prosperity, and administrative efficiency.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Cultural Resilience and Dynamic Artistic Integration

• Material culture exhibited ongoing synthesis of indigenous Iberian, Celtic, and pervasive Roman artistic traditions. Artistic expressions—elaborate metalwork, decorative jewelry, pottery, ceremonial artifacts, and everyday objects—highlighted vibrant cultural identities and continued adaptation.

• Tribal cultures—particularly among the Lusitanians, Gallaeci, Astures, Cantabri, and Vascones—remained resilient, creatively adapting their traditions within the integrated Roman provincial context.

Ritual Continuity and Cultural Adaptation

• Ritual traditions persisted actively, integrating indigenous Iberian, Celtic, and Roman religious elements. Sacred sites, communal ceremonies, and ritual landscapes remained central, reinforcing communal cohesion, cultural continuity, and tribal identities.

• Traditional ancestral rites, warrior ceremonies, and local festivals continued robustly, supporting regional solidarity, identity, and cultural resilience amidst stable Roman provincial rule.

Notable Tribal Groups and Settlements

• Lusitanians: Sustained economic prosperity and cultural stability within the well-established Roman provincial framework.

• Vettones and Vaccaei: Continued maintaining local autonomy, economic prosperity, and territorial integrity through strategic diplomatic cooperation with Roman authorities.

• Gallaeci, Astures, Cantabri: Fully integrated and economically prosperous, preserving strong local identities and traditions within Roman provincial governance.

• Vascones: Successfully maintained territorial autonomy, diplomatic neutrality, cultural distinctiveness, and internal stability within the provincial system.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 88 and 99 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Reinforced comprehensive provincial stability, significantly shaping the region’s long-term political and economic trajectory under Roman rule.

• Strengthened economic integration into Mediterranean networks, embedding slavery firmly within the regional economy and society.

• Demonstrated sustained cultural vitality, dynamically preserving indigenous identities and traditions within the Romanized provincial framework.

This era conclusively established Atlantic Southwest Europe's legacy as a stable, economically prosperous, and culturally resilient region within the Roman Empire, laying foundations for continued prosperity under Trajan’s subsequent rule.

Marcus Ulpius Traianus was born on September 18, 53, in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica (in what is now Andalusia in modern Spain), a province that was thoroughly Romanized and called southern Hispania, in the city of Italica (now in the outskirts of Seville), where the Italian families were paramount.

He is the son of Marcia and Marcus Ulpius Traianus, a prominent senator and general from the gens Ulpia.

Trajan himself is just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that will continue long after his own death.

His elder sister is Ulpia Marciana and his niece was Salonina Matidia.

The patria of the Ulpii is Italica, in Spanish Baetica, where their ancestors late in the third century BCE had settled.

He had risen as a young man through the ranks of the Roman army, serving in some of the most contentious parts of the Empire's frontier.

Trajan's father was in 76–77 Governor of Syria (Legatus pro praetore Syriae), where Trajan himself had remained as Tribunus legionis.

The governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, on January 1, 89,  revolt against the Empire with the aid of the Chatti.

The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance.

The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus.

The uprising is in any case strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumor spreads across the neighboring provinces.

The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moves to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus.

Trajan is summoned from Spain, while Domitian himself comes from Rome with the Praetorian Guard.

By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevents the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid.

The rebellion is crushed within twenty-four days and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished.

Trajan afterwards burns Saturninus' letters in an attempt to avoid implicating others.

Domitian has numerous others executed with Saturninus, however, displaying their heads on the rostra at Rome.

The Legio XXI is sent to the front in Pannonia, and Domitian passes a law prohibiting two legions from sharing the same camp.