The procurators' and prefects' primary functions are military, but as representatives of the empire they are responsible for the collection of imperial taxes, and also have limited judicial functions.

Other civil administration lies in the hands of local government: the municipal councils or ethnic governments such as—in the district of Judaea and Jerusalem—the Sanhedrin and its president the High Priest, but in Pontius Pilate's day the power of appointment of the High Priest will until 41 reside in the Roman legate of Syria or the prefect of Judaea.

Caiaphas, for example, was appointed High Priest of Herod's Temple by Prefect Valerius Gratus and deposed by Syrian Legate Lucius Vitellius.

The Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, who governs Judaea from 26 to 36, is nominally in charge of Judaea, Samaria, and Idumaea, but does not govern his area directly; instead, he relies on local leaders.

The prefect and his small army live in the predominantly Gentile city Caesarea, on the Mediterranean coast, about two days' march from Jerusalem.

They come to Jerusalem only to ensure peace during the pilgrimage festivals—Passover, Weeks (Shabuoth), and Booths (Sukkoth)‚ when large crowds and patriotic themes sometimes combine to spark unrest or uprisings.

Pilate's term as prefect of Judaea ends after an incident recounted by Josephus.

A large group of Samaritans had been persuaded by an unnamed man to go to Mount Gerizim in order to see sacred artifacts allegedly buried by Moses.

But at a village named Tirathana, before the crowd could ascend the mountain, Pilate sent in "a detachment of cavalry and heavy-armed infantry, who in an encounter with the firstcomers in the village slew some in a pitched battle and put the others to flight. Many prisoners were taken, of whom Pilate put to death the principal leaders and those who were most influential."

The Samaritans complain to Vitellius, who sends Pilate to Rome to explain his actions regarding this incident to Tiberius, who dies before Pilate reaches Rome.

Galilee continues to be governed by the tetrarch Antipas, who is sovereign within his own domain, provided he remains loyal to Rome and maintains peace and stability within his borders.

Antipas' closeness to the imperial family results in his choice as a mediator in the Roman-Parthian talks of 36.

To his credit, the conference is a success, but his haste to report the news to Rome arouses the hostility of Aulus Vitellius, legate of Syria, later emperor.

Aretas IV, the Nabataean king whose daughter Antipas had repudiated, attacks the tetrarch’s realm, inflicting severe damage.

The Emperor's response to appeals from Antipas is to send Vitellius, who, still nursing his resentment, avails himself of every possible delay.

The Roman counteroffensive is abandoned upon the emperor's death in 37 CE.

Agrippina and Claudius are married on New Year’s Day, 49.

This marriage causes widespread disapproval.

This is a part of Agrippina’s scheming plan to make Lucius the new emperor.

Her marriage to Claudius is not based on love, but on power.

She quickly eliminates her rival Lollia Paulina.

In 49, shortly after marrying Claudius, Agrippina charges Paulina with black magic.

Paulina does not receive a hearing.

Her property is confiscated, she leaves Italy and on Agrippina's orders, she commits suicide.

Claudius accepts Agrippina’s inducements to adopt the twelve-year-old son Lucius, the product of her first marriage to Domitius Ahenobarbus; Nero, as he will become known, is older than Britannicus and a direct descendant of Augustus.

In the months leading up to her marriage to Claudius, Agrippina's maternal second cousin, the praetor Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus, had been betrothed to Claudius’ daughter Claudia Octavia.

This betrothal had been broken off in 48 when Agrippina, scheming with the consul Lucius Vitellius the Elder, the father of the future Emperor Aulus Vitellius, had falsely accused Silanus of incest with his sister Junia Calvina.

Agrippina did this hoping to secure a marriage between Octavia and her son.

Consequently, Claudius had broken off the engagement and forced Silanus to resign from public office.

Silanus had committed suicide on the day that Agrippina married her uncle, and Calvina is exiled from Italy in early 49.

Calvina will be called back from exile after the death of Agrippina.

Towards the end of 54, Agrippina will order the murder of Silanus' eldest brother Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus without Nero's knowledge, so that he would not seek revenge against her over his brother's death.

The Conspiracy of Piso and the Fall of Nero (65–68 CE)

The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in 65 CE marked a turning point in Emperor Nero’s reign, reflecting the widespread dissatisfaction among the Roman elite over his increasingly despotic and erratic rule.

• Piso, a prominent senator, sought to overthrow Nero, rallying support from senators, equestrians, military officers, and even some of Nero’s inner circle.
• The plot was discovered, leading to mass executions, including the deaths of the philosopher Seneca, the poet Lucan, and the general Faenius Rufus.
• Paranoia consumed Nero, as he increasingly alienated the Senate, the Praetorian Guard, and provincial governors, accelerating his downfall.

By 68 CE, multiple governors and legions revolted, and the Senate declared Nero an enemy of the state (hostis publicus). Facing certain execution, Nero committed suicide on June 9, 68 CE, famously lamenting:

"Qualis artifex pereo!" (What an artist dies in me!).

The Year of the Four Emperors (68–69 CE): Rome in Chaos

Following Nero’s death, Rome was plunged into civil war, as multiple generals vied for the throne. Over a tumultuous eighteen months, the empire saw the rise and fall of four emperors:

1. Galba (June 68 – January 69 CE)

   • The Senate declared Galba emperor, but he alienated the Praetorian Guard by refusing to pay them a promised donative.
   • His harsh governance led to his assassination by supporters of Otho.

2. Otho (January – April 69 CE)

   • Otho quickly seized power, but his reign was challenged by Vitellius, who had the backing of the German legions.
   • After losing the Battle of Bedriacum, Otho committed suicide rather than prolong the civil war.

3. Vitellius (April – December 69 CE)

   • Initially victorious, Vitellius' reign was marred by extravagance, incompetence, and brutality.
   • His rule was challenged by Vespasian, the commander of the eastern legions, who had secured the loyalty of Syria, Egypt, and Judea.
   • Vitellius was captured and killed by Vespasian’s forces.

4. Vespasian (July 69 – 79 CE)

   • Vespasian consolidated power, bringing an end to the civil war and establishing the Flavian dynasty.

Broader Consequences of the Political Anarchy

The instability of 69 CE had far-reaching effects, extending beyond Rome:

• The Batavian Rebellion (69–70 CE)

  • The Batavi, a Germanic auxiliary people in Germania Inferior (modern Netherlands), led a major revolt against Roman rule.
  • Led by Julius Civilis, they exploited Rome’s civil war to briefly expel Roman forces from the Rhine frontier.
  • Vespasian’s general, Petillius Cerialis, eventually crushed the rebellion, restoring Roman authority.

• The Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE)

  • The Jewish Revolt in Judea, which had begun in 66 CE, remained unresolved during the Roman civil war.
  • After securing the throne, Vespasian left the final suppression of the revolt to his son, Titus, who would capture and destroy Jerusalem in 70 CE.

Legacy of the Year of the Four Emperors

• The chaos of 68–69 CE revealed the fragility of imperial succession, demonstrating that power lay in the hands of the legions rather than the Senate.
• The Flavian dynasty, established by Vespasian, marked the beginning of a more stable and militarized Rome, ensuring that future emperors would need strong military backing to maintain power.
• The pattern of civil wars and contested successions would repeat throughout Roman history, particularly during the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE).

The Piso Conspiracy, Nero’s downfall, and the Year of the Four Emperors signified the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the beginning of a new era, where military loyalty determined imperial legitimacy.

The Middle East: 64–75 CE

Parthian Cultural Revival and Roman Diplomacy

The reign of Vologases I of the Parthian Empire marks a deliberate departure from the Hellenistic influences that had permeated the region since Alexander’s conquests. Vologases spearheads a significant cultural revival, reasserting traditional Iranian customs and reintroducing ancient Persian traditions rooted in the Achaemenid dynasty. As part of this deliberate policy, he restores original Iranian names to cities previously renamed by Greek rulers, underscoring his commitment to Iran’s native heritage.

In a move of profound cultural significance, Vologases commissions the collection and preservation of the ancient Avestan texts, fundamental scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion. Coins minted under his authority depict fire temples, emphasizing his devotion to the traditional Persian religion—a symbolic tradition sustained throughout the subsequent Sassanian dynasty.

Vologases also demonstrates considerable initiative as an urban planner and builder. He establishes the city of Vologesocerta (variously known as Balashkert, Balashgerd, or Balashkard), strategically located near the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, in an effort to draw residents away from the Hellenistic stronghold of Seleucia on the Tigris. He further founds the city of Vologesias, situated near a canal branching from the Euphrates River south of Babylon, close to the future site of Hirah.

Diplomatic relations between Parthia and Rome remain cordial under Vologases, exemplified by his offer of 40,000 Parthian archers to the Roman Emperor Vespasian to support him in his conflict against Vitellius. However, relations are later tested when the Alans, a powerful nomadic tribe from beyond the Caucasus, invade Media and Armenia. Vologases’ plea for assistance from Vespasian is denied, reflecting the pragmatic limits of Roman support.

Despite Vologases’ considerable efforts, Parthia struggles to regain control of lost territories in its eastern dominions. The kingdom of Hyrcania, in particular, maintains its autonomy, signaling the continued fragility and complexity of Parthian political control.

Dioscorides and the Legacy of Medical Knowledge

This era is also notable for the enduring contributions of Pedanius Dioscorides, a physician from Anazarbus in Cilicia, Asia Minor, who compiles his seminal work De Materia Medica between 50 and 70 CE. Written in Greek, this comprehensive five-volume treatise meticulously documents drugs of plant, animal, and mineral origin, providing detailed descriptions of their dosage, application, and medicinal properties. It becomes the foremost medical reference across both the Greco-Roman and Islamic worlds, continuously used and referenced for over 1,500 years.

Notably, Dioscorides recognizes the association between zinc ores and brass production, observing the mineral cadmia (zinc oxide) deposited in metal-smelting furnaces. His documentation preserves not only medical and botanical knowledge but also historical linguistic records, including rare Dacian and Thracian plant names that might otherwise have been lost to history.

Thus, the era from 64 to 75 CE sees significant cultural realignment under Parthian rule, alongside the establishment of a lasting scientific and medicinal legacy through Dioscorides’ influential writings.

The reign of Vologases I of Parthia, ruler of the Parthian Empire, is marked by a decided reaction against Hellenism.

He is influential in reverting Hellenization by returning to Iranian customs and traditions of the Achamenids’ time.

He reverts the Greek names of Iranian cities to Iranian names.

According to Zoroastrian texts, Vologases ordered the collection of the ancient Avestan texts.

On some of his coins a fire temple can be seen; this tradition will continue for several hundred years to the end of the Sassanian dynasty.

He builds cities, including Vologesocerta (Balashkert or Balashgerd or Balashkard, literally Balash built it) in the neighborhood of Ctesiphon, with the intention of drawing to this new town the inhabitants of Seleucia on the Tigris.

Another town founded by him is Vologesias on a canal of the Euphrates, south of Babylon (near Hirah).

Vologases has good relations with Vespasian, to whom he offers an army of forty thousand archers in the war against Vitellius.

Soon afterwards the Alans, a great nomadic tribe beyond the Caucasus, invade Media and Armenia; Vologases applies in vain for help to Vespasian.

It appears that the Persian losses in the east also cannot be repaired; Hyrcania remains an independent kingdom.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (64–75 CE): Artistic Evolution and Nero’s Controversial Reign

The era 64–75 CE is distinguished by significant artistic developments, particularly in Roman wall decoration, and by profound political upheavals, notably during Nero's increasingly tumultuous reign and its dramatic aftermath.

Fourth Style Roman Wall Decoration

During the 60s CE, the "fourth style" of Roman wall decoration emerges, becoming highly fashionable. This artistic innovation integrates aspects of previous styles, retaining elements of the third style’s two-dimensional motifs while reintroducing depth through carefully arranged, narrow illusionistic windows in the upper wall zones. The new style showcases increased sophistication and complexity, reflecting the refined tastes and cultural sophistication prevalent during Nero's reign.

Great Fire of Rome and Nero’s Controversial Leadership

In 64 CE, the devastating Great Fire of Rome occurs, significantly reshaping the city and Nero’s legacy. While Nero reportedly organizes effective relief efforts, he also exploits the disaster to construct his extravagant palace complex, the Domus Aurea, intensifying public resentment. His lavish spending and extravagant lifestyle increasingly antagonize the political elite and general populace.

Political Instability and Nero’s Downfall

Nero’s reign grows progressively autocratic and unstable, culminating in widespread revolts and conspiracies, most notably the Pisonian conspiracy of 65 CE. Continued unrest and dissatisfaction eventually lead to Nero’s forced suicide in 68 CE, precipitating a turbulent political transition known as the "Year of the Four Emperors."

Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE)

Following Nero’s demise, Rome plunges into political chaos, witnessing rapid succession and violent struggles among four emperors—Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian. This period underscores Rome’s vulnerability to internal strife and the inherent instability in its imperial succession system.

Vespasian’s Rise and Restoration of Stability

In 69 CE, Vespasian emerges victorious, establishing the Flavian dynasty and restoring stability after a year of intense conflict. His pragmatic governance, military competence, and administrative reforms help reestablish order and confidence throughout the Roman Empire, notably in Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Cultural Continuity Amid Political Unrest

Despite political upheaval, cultural and artistic activities continue to flourish, exemplified by the fourth style wall decorations and ongoing developments in architecture, theater, and public life. These cultural pursuits reflect Rome’s resilience and adaptability amidst political and social challenges.

Legacy of the Era

The period 64–75 CE significantly impacts Roman society through both profound artistic achievements and major political upheavals. The transition from Nero’s controversial reign to the stabilizing rule of Vespasian underscores the empire’s complexity and resilience, leaving a lasting legacy on Rome's artistic and political landscapes.

Atlantic West Europe (64–75 CE): Crisis, Consolidation, and Recovery under the Flavians

Between 64 and 75 CE, Atlantic West Europe—including Aquitaine, the Atlantic coast, northern and central France, Alsace, and the Low Countries—experienced significant turbulence due to political instability following Emperor Nero’s downfall, the ensuing Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE), and eventual stabilization under the Flavian Dynasty. Despite temporary disruptions, the region emerged resilient, witnessing renewed imperial investment, reinforced frontiers, and continued Romanization.

Political and Military Developments

Turmoil of the Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE)

• Nero’s death in 68 CE plunged the empire into chaos, with rapid successions of short-lived emperors—Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and ultimately Vespasian.

• Atlantic West Europe initially supported Emperor Vitellius (commander in Germania), whose brief reign ended with his defeat by Vespasian’s forces in December 69 CE.

Stabilization under the Flavian Dynasty

• Emperor Vespasian (r. 69–79 CE) restored stability and re-established strong central governance, appointing capable governors who quickly consolidated imperial authority.

• Military units stationed along the Rhine frontier were reinforced, securing the eastern boundary against potential Germanic incursions.

Economic and Social Developments

Short-Term Disruptions and Long-Term Stability

• The civil wars briefly disrupted trade and economic activity, notably along trade routes to Britain and the Rhine frontier.

• By early 70 CE, trade resumed with vigor; economic centers such as Burdigala (Bordeaux) quickly recovered, continuing to export regional specialties such as wine, olive oil, pottery, and metals.

Renewal of Infrastructure and Urban Development

• Vespasian initiated significant infrastructural investments to restore roads, bridges, and fortifications damaged or neglected during Nero’s later years and the civil war period.

• Cities such as Augustodunum (Autun), Durocortorum (Reims), Burdigala, and various settlements along the Atlantic coast benefited from new imperial projects, including aqueducts, baths, and temples.

Agricultural Recovery and Expansion

• Agriculture, particularly viticulture in Aquitaine, quickly rebounded after brief interruptions, regaining its prominent role in regional prosperity.

• Surplus production and exports resumed, sustaining urban growth and further integrating the region’s economy within the broader empire.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Continued Romanization

• Cultural integration deepened under Flavian patronage, with increased adoption of Latin and Roman customs among local elites and urban populations.

• Architectural and cultural projects were sponsored widely, spreading Roman norms and traditions throughout provincial society.

Reinforcement of Imperial Cult

• The cult of the emperor was reinvigorated under Vespasian, serving both religious and political purposes, uniting provincial loyalty around the new regime.

• Temples and monuments dedicated to Vespasian and his dynasty were established across major urban centers in the region.

Key Figures and Events

• Vespasian (r. 69–79 CE): Successfully restored order after Nero’s chaotic downfall, reinforcing imperial authority and provincial loyalty.

• The turbulent but brief rule of Vitellius (69 CE): Highlighted the region’s strategic role as the gateway between Germania, Britain, and the heartland of Gaul.

Long-Term Significance

By 75 CE, Atlantic West Europe had:

• Successfully navigated the political crises of 69 CE, emerging resilient under Flavian rule.

• Re-established robust economic networks, reinforced agricultural productivity, and continued urban development.

• Strengthened Roman cultural influence, setting a firm foundation for sustained growth and regional stability throughout the remainder of the first century and beyond.

These developments demonstrated the region's resilience and adaptability, ensuring its vital place within the Roman Empire for decades to come.

Great events were occurring in Rome while the war in Judea was being won.

The emperor Nero's increasingly erratic behavior in the middle of 68 CE had finally lost him all support for his position.

The Roman Senate, the praetorian guard and several prominent army commanders had conspired for his removal.

When the senate declared Nero an Enemy of the people, he fled Rome and committed suicide.

The newly installed emperor Galba is murdered after just a few months by Otho, a rival, triggering a civil war that comes to be known as the Year of the Four Emperors.

While the Jewish Revolt continues to rage in Palestine, Joseph has remained a prisoner in the Roman camp for two years; his prediction had gained in credibility after the death of Nero in 68, and comes true late in 69, when the popular Vespasian, though previously uninvolved, is also hailed emperor by the legions under his command.

Vespasian decides, upon gaining further widespread support, to return to Rome to claim the throne from the usurper Vitellius, leaving his son Titus to finish the war in Judea.

The agreeable Jewish prisoner is given his freedom and attaches himself to the Roman cause.