Zhengtong Emperor

The end of the Yüan dynasty is the second turning point in Mongol history.

The retreat of more than sixty thousand Mongols into the Mongolian heartland brings radical changes to the quasi-feudalistic system.

In the early fifteenth century, the Mongols split into two groups, the Oirat in the Altai region and the eastern group that later comes to be known as the Khalkha in the area north of the Gobi.

A lengthy civil war (1400-54) precipitates still more changes in the old social and political institutions.

By the middle of the fifteenth century, the Oirat have emerged as the predominant force, and, under the leadership of Esen Khan, they unite much of Mongolia, then continue their war against China.

Esen is so successful against China that, in 1449, he defeats and captures the Ming emperor.

After Esen is killed in battle four years later, however, the brief resurgence of Mongolia comes to an abrupt halt, and the tribes return  to their traditional disunity.

Temple construction begins to decline under the Ming dynasty, along with architecture in general, into mere repetition of Song formulas.

Among the few notable Chinese buildings erected in the fifteenth-century are the Taimiao, in Beijing, a long, narrow assembly building that recalls early Chinese palaces, and the Zhihuasi, completed in 1444 as a Ming version of a traditional Buddhist structure.

Construction of the Zhihua Temple ("Temple of Wisdom Attained") had begun in 1443 at the order of Wang Zhen, a powerful eunuch in the Rites Supervising Office of the court of the Zhengtong Emperor.

The temple, surrounding buildings, and grounds comprise approximately two hectares (four point nine acres).

It is one of the most important original building complexes from the Ming dynasty period in the Old City area, and one of the only wooden structures and groups of buildings from the Ming dynasty to remain intact in Beijing.

It is also striking for its extensive use of black roof tiles.

The Tumu Crisis, a frontier conflict between the Oirat Mongols and the Chinese Ming Dynasty, leads to the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor on September 8, 1449, largely due to the Chinese army's remarkably bad deployment.

The expedition is regarded as the dynasty’s greatest military debacle.

The Ming Chinese had conquered Yunnan after their campaigns of 1380–1388, but have never completely controlled the frontier, which is still occupied by several Shan States.

The Chinese had been forced to send troops back to the region due to the constant Shan raids into Yunnan by Thonganbwa, the saopha of Mogaung.

In 1443, the Zhengtong Emperor had sent yet another expeditionary force (the third campaign since 1436) to punish the pesky Shan raiders.

After learning that Ava had already defeated and captured Thonganbwa at Mogaung, the Chinese forces, encamped at the frontier, had demanded that Ava surrender Thonganbwa, and send a payment of tribute, or it will face attack.

Narapati had refused the Chinese demand, and Ava forces march north in 1444 to meet the Chinese.

The Burmese Chronicles report that the Chinese forces numbered three million, and that the Ava forces numbered two hundred thousand.

The numbers clearly are an exaggeration but an exaggeration that does indicate a grave threat.

(Noted historian of Burmese history, GE Harvey, believes that the military numbers reported during the Ava-Pegu era were an order of magnitude higher.)

Chinese troops descend on Bhamo, and war breaks out.

The Burmese meet the invaders at Kaungton near Bhamo and held their ground.

The Chinese soon face a food supply problem, and retreat to Mong Wan (Mo Wun).

Narapati appoints the saophas of Mogaung and Mong Nai (Mone) to watch over Bhamo and returns to Ava.

The Chinese forces, having regrouped, invaded again in the following year.

On November 3, 1445, the Burmese troops evacuate Bhamo.

The first construction of the Precious Belt Bridge, a Chinese stone arch bridge located at the intersection of the Grand Canal and Dantai Lake, about 2.5 kilometer southeast of Suzhou in present Jiangsu Province, China, dates back to the CE 816, during the middle Tang Dynasty.

According to written accounts, the bridge derives its name from the local prefect Wang Zhongshu, who in a selfless act had sold his precious belt in order to help finance its construction.

Since then, it has been reconstructed several times.

The current structure of the Precious Belt Bridge is a Ming Dynasty era reconstruction of 1446, during the reign of the Zhengtong Emperor.

The Chinese invaders follow their 1446 conquest of Ava by taking the Shan-held city of Pagan, farther down the Irrawaddy River.

The long episode of drought, flood, locust infestation, and famine in Ming Dynasty China since the year 1434 finally wanes and agriculture and commerce return to a normal state in 1448.

The Oirat Mongols defeat the Ming Dynasty army in the Battle of Tumu Fortress and capture the Zhengtong Emperor of China; the latter is officially deposed while his brother ascends as the Jingtai Emperor the following year.

The Ming Dynasty, ruled from Beijing by ethnic Han Chinese, has constructed a vast navy and maintains a standing army of one million troops.

Enormous construction projects, including the restoration of the Grand Canal and the Great Wall and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing had taken place during the first quarter of the fifteenth century.

Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from one hundred and sixty million to twio hundred million.

The founding emperor’s rebuilding of China's agricultural base and strengthening of communication routes through the militarized courier system has had the unintended effect of creating a vast agricultural surplus that can be sold at burgeoning markets located along courier routes.

Rural culture and commerce have become influenced by urban trends.

The upper echelons of society embodied in the scholarly gentry class are also affected by this new consumption-based culture.

In a departure from tradition, merchant families have begun to produce examination candidates to become scholar-officials and adopted cultural traits and practices typical of the gentry.

Parallel to this trend involving social class and commercial consumption are changes in social and political philosophy, bureaucracy and governmental institutions, and even arts and literature.

The Zhengtong Emperor had been released from a yearlong Mongol captivity in 1450 but when he returned to China had been immediately put under house arrest by his brother Zhu Qiyu, who, to calm the crisis, had been installed as the Jingtai Emperor.

For almost seven years, he has resided in the southern palace of the Forbidden city and all outside contacts are severely curtailed by the Jingtai Emperor.

Zhengtong's son (later Emperor Chenghua) had stripped of the title of crown prince and replaced by Jingtai's own son.

This act had greatly upset and devastated Zhengtong but the heir apparent had died shortly thereafter.

Overcome with grief, the Jingtai Emperor falls ill and Zhengtong decides to depose Jingtai by a palace coup which eventually reinstalls Zhu Qizhen as emperor, who renames his second reign Tianshun ("heavenly obedience"); he will go on to rule for another seven years.