The plague had retreated from Europe in the late seventeenth century, making a last appearance in Northern Germany in 1682 and vanishing from the continent in 1684.

The subsequent wave hitting Europe during the Great Northern War most probably had its origins in Central Asia, spreading to Europe via Anatolia and Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire.

Georg Sticker will number this epidemic as the "twelfth period" of plague epidemics, first recorded in Ahmedabad in 1683 and until 1724 affecting a territory from India over Persia, Asia Minor, the Levant and Egypt to Nubia and Ethiopia as well as to Morocco and southern France on the one hand and to East Central Europe up to Scandinavia on the other hand. (Sticker, Georg (1908). Die Pest. Abhandlungen aus der Seuchengeschichte und Seuchenlehre. 1. Gießen: A. Töpelmann (vormals J. Ricker).

Constantinople is reached in 1685 and will remain a site of infection for the subsequent years.

Sporadically, the plague enters Poland–Lithuania from 1697, yet the wave of the plague that meets and follows the armies of the Great Northern War is first recorded in Poland in 1702.

Along with the plague, other diseases like dysentery, smallpox and spotted fever spread during the war, and at least in some regions the population encounters those while starving.

Already in 1695–1697, a great famine had already struck Finland (death toll between a quarter and a third of the population), Estonia (death toll about a fifth of the population), Livonia, and Lithuania (where the famine as well as epidemics and warfare had killed half of the population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania between 1648 and 1697).

In addition, the winter of 1708-1709 is exceptionally long and severe; as a result, the winter seed freezes to death in Denmark and Prussia, and the soil has to be plowed and tilled again in the spring.

The Great Northern War begins in 1700 when Denmark, Poland, and Russia form an alliance to take advantage of Sweden's apparent weakness at this time and to partition the Swedish empire.

Sweden's youthful king Charles XII surprises them, however, with a series of military victories that knock Denmark out of the war in 1700 and Poland, in 1706.

The impetuous Swedish king then marches on Moscow, but he meets disaster at the battle of Poltava in 1709.

As a result, Denmark and Poland rejoin the war against Sweden.

Charles attempts to compensate for Sweden's territorial losses in the Baltic by conquering Norway, but he is killed in action there in 1718.

His death removes the main obstacle to a negotiated peace between Sweden and the alliance.

Denmark is at peace for most of the eighteenth century. 

The only time when war threatens is in 1762, when the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp becomes Tsar Peter III of Russia and declares war on Denmark over his ancestral claims in Schleswig.

Before any fighting can begin, however, he is overthrown by his wife, who takes control of Russia as Tsarina Catherine II.

Empress Catherine withdraws her husband's demands and negotiates the transfer of ducal Schleswig-Holstein to the Danish crown in return for Russian control of the County of Oldenburg and adjacent lands within the Holy Roman Empire, an exchange that is formalized with the 1773 Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo.

The alliance that accompanies the territorial exchange ties Denmark's foreign policy to Russia's and will lead directly to Denmark's involvement in a series of wars over the succeeding decades.

A renewed attack during the Third Northern War (1700–1721) first results in the unfavorable Peace of Travendal, but after Denmark's re-entry into the war and Sweden's ultimate defeat by a large alliance, Sweden is no longer a threat to Denmark.

However, the great powers oppose any Danish territorial gains, which means the Treaty of Frederiksborg does not return the former eastern provinces to Denmark.

Furthermore, Denmark is even forced to return Swedish Pomerania, held by Danish forces since 1715, to Sweden.

Denmark now has no hope of recovering its lost provinces from Sweden.

As noted earlier, the rest of Europe is simply against the Sound being controlled by a single nation ever again.

The population of Denmark rises steadily through this period, from six hundred thousand in 1660 (after the loss of territory to Sweden) to seven hundred thousand in 1720.

By 1807 it has risen to nine hundred and seventy-eight thousand.

Finland's ability to defend itself had been impaired by the famine of 1696 in which about one-third of the Finnish people died of starvation, a toll greater than that caused by the Black Death in the fourteenth century.

The war's greatest impact on Finland, beyond the heavy taxes and conscription, is caused by Russian occupation from 1714 to 1722, a period of great difficulty, remembered by the Finns as the Great Wrath.

The hardships of being conquered by a foreign invader are compounded by Charles XII's insistence that the Finns carry on partisan warfare against the Russians.

Much of the countryside is devastated by the Russians in order to deny Finland's resources to Sweden.

Of the nearly sixty thousand Finns who serve in the Swedish army, only about ten thousand survive the Great Northern War.

Finland's prewar population of four hundred thousand is reduced by the end of the war to about three hundred and thirty thousand.

Poland-Lithuania, before another hundred years has elapsed, will have virtually ceased to function as a coherent and genuinely independent state.

The commonwealth's last martial triumph had occurred in 1683 when King Jan Sobieski drove the Turks from the gates of Vienna with a cavalry charge.

Poland's important role in aiding the European alliance to roll back the Ottoman Empire is rewarded with territory in western Ukraine by the Treaty of Karlowicz (1699).

Nonetheless, this isolated success does little to mask the internal weakness and paralysis of the Polish-Lithuanian political system.

For the next quarter century, Poland will often be a pawn in Russia's campaigns against other powers.

Augustus II of Saxony (r. 1697- 1733), who succeeds Jan Sobieski, involves Poland in Peter the Great's war with Sweden, incurring another round of invasion and devastation by the Swedes between 1704 and 1710.

Brandenburg in 1648 had been a small state in northern Germany.

It has been ruled by the Hohenzollern Dynasty since the late fifteenth century and consists of the core region and its capital, Berlin: eastern Pomerania; an area around Magdeburg; the former holdings of the Knights of the Teutonic Order in eastern Prussia; and some smaller holdings in western Germany.

Brandenburg becomes known as Prussia in 1701 when its ruler crowns himself King Frederick I of Prussia.

Prussia acquires the rest of Pomerania after defeating Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700-21).

Prussia's increase in size and influence may be attributed to a succession of capable leaders, all of whom enjoy long reigns.

The first is Frederick William (r. 1640-88), known as the Great Elector, who increases his family's power by granting favors to the nobility, weakening the independence of the towns, and maintaining a professional standing army.

His son Frederick I (r. 1688-1713) establishes Prussia as a kingdom.

Frederick further strengthens the army, but not nearly as much as his son Frederick William I (r. 1713- 40), who also modernizes the kingdom's bureaucracy.

Frederick II (r. 1740-86), known to posterity as Frederick the Great, continues along the same lines as his father but shows much greater imagination and ruthlessness, transforming his small kingdom into one of the great powers of Europe.

East Europe (1696–1707 CE): Consolidation of Reforms and Territorial Expansion

Political and Military Developments

Continued Leadership of Peter the Great

From 1696 to 1707 CE, Peter the Great solidified his leadership, implementing profound political, military, and social reforms designed to modernize Russia. His centralization efforts strengthened administrative control and further reinforced state authority.

The Great Northern War and Territorial Gains

During this period, Russia became actively involved in the early phases of the Great Northern War against Sweden (1700–1721). Initial victories and strategic maneuvers significantly expanded Russia’s influence and territorial holdings in the Baltic region.

Diplomatic Realignment and International Alliances

Peter maintained strategic alliances, particularly with Denmark and Poland-Lithuania, against Sweden. His diplomatic skills advanced Russia’s status on the European stage, positioning it as an emerging power.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Reforms and Expansion

Peter further advanced economic modernization, promoting industrial growth, enhanced trade networks, and introducing progressive economic policies. These reforms facilitated greater integration with Western European economies.

Military and Technological Innovations

Significant developments continued in military organization, naval expansion, and fortifications. Technological advancements included improved weaponry, shipbuilding techniques, and fortification strategies, essential for military successes.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Westernization of Russian Culture

Peter’s era saw deeper integration of Western European influences into Russian cultural life. New architectural styles flourished, and European artistic and educational trends were actively promoted, significantly reshaping cultural norms.

Intellectual Expansion and Literary Activity

The period witnessed growing intellectual vibrancy, with an increased flow of ideas from Europe. Literary production expanded, incorporating new Western-inspired themes and formats, enriching Russia’s intellectual landscape.

Settlement Patterns and Urban Development

Rapid Urban Growth and Modernization

Cities, particularly Saint Petersburg, newly established in 1703, underwent rapid growth and modernization, reflecting Peter’s strategic vision. Moscow and other urban centers similarly expanded, benefiting from improved infrastructure and planning.

Strategic Fortification Enhancements

Urban and territorial fortifications were continually improved, ensuring robust defensive capabilities and providing security against external threats during ongoing military campaigns.

Social and Religious Developments

Social Reforms and Integration

Social structures continued evolving under Peter’s reforms, increasingly influenced by Western European models. Efforts toward integration and administrative inclusion of diverse ethnic groups persisted, promoting societal harmony and cohesion.

Orthodox Church under State Control

The relationship between the Orthodox Church and state continued shifting towards greater state oversight. Peter’s reforms sought to align religious institutions with state goals, altering the Church’s traditional role significantly.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 1696 to 1707 CE marked further consolidation of Peter the Great’s transformative reforms and substantial territorial expansion. These developments solidified Russia’s emergence as a significant European power, profoundly impacting its future political, economic, and cultural trajectory.den