Roman Civil War of 360-61

The Fall of Gallus, the Rise of Julian, and the End of the Constantinian Dynasty (354–361 CE)

The final years of Constantius II’s reign (337–361 CE) were marked by internal power struggles, culminating in the execution of Gallus, the rise of Julian, and an impending civil war that was cut short by Constantius’ unexpected death.

1. The Execution of Constantius Gallus (354 CE)

• Constantius Gallus, a half-brother of Julian, had been appointed Caesar of the East in 351 CE to help manage the empire’s vast territories.
• Reports from Syria Palæstina revealed that Gallus had become violent and corrupt, ruling with brutality and executing imperial officials.
• Constantius II ordered Gallus’ arrest and execution in 354 CE, eliminating a potential rival but leaving himself with only one male relative—Julian.

2. The Rise of Julian as Caesar (355 CE)

• With Gallus gone, Constantius elevated Julian to the rank of Caesar in 355 CE, making him his last surviving relative.
• Julian, an intellectual and admirer of classical pagan philosophy, was sent to govern Gaul, where he proved to be an exceptional general and administrator.
• Over the next five years, he defended the Rhine frontier, winning major victories over the Franks and Alemanni.

3. Julian Declares Himself Augustus (360 CE)

• As Julian’s power and popularity grew, his troops in Gaul proclaimed him Augustus in 360 CE, challenging Constantius’ authority.
• Constantius saw this as an act of treason, leading to an inevitable civil war between the two emperors.

4. The Unexpected End of the Conflict (361 CE)

• As Constantius marched east to confront Julian, he suddenly fell ill in late 361 CE.
• Before his death, he unexpectedly named Julian as his successor, avoiding a full-scale civil war.
• With Constantius’ death, Julian became the undisputed ruler of the Roman Empire, marking the end of the Constantinian dynasty.

5. Conclusion: A Tumultuous Transfer of Power

• The execution of Gallus removed a brutal but politically valuable ally.
• Julian’s rise to power demonstrated that military success could challenge dynastic legitimacy.
• Constantius’ death in 361 CE allowed for a peaceful transition, but Julian’s rule would soon be marked by:
  • Radical religious policies aimed at restoring paganism in an empire that had become predominantly Christianized.
  • A Persian campaign (362–363 CE) that would ultimately lead to his untimely death.

Despite his military and administrative talents, Julian’s reign (361–363 CE) would be short-lived, and his efforts to reverse Christian dominance would fail, solidifying the empire’s eventual Christian character.

he Renaming of Lutetia to Paris (360 CE)

In 360 CE, Lutetia, the Roman city on the Île de la Cité, was officially renamed Paris, adopting the name of the Gallic Parisii tribe that had once inhabited the region.

1. The Origins of the Name "Paris"

• The Parisii were a Gallic tribe that had settled along the Seine River before the Roman conquest of Gaul in the 1st century BCE.
• While the Romans named their city Lutetia, the local population continued to use "Parisii" as an ethnic and regional identifier.
• The term "Parisiacus" had already been used for centuries as an adjective, referring to things related to the Parisii or Lutetia.

2. Julian and the Renaming of the City

• The renaming of Lutetia to Paris occurred during the reign of Julian, who was serving as Caesar in Gaul at the time.
• Julian had used Lutetia as his winter quarters in 357 CE, after securing a major victory over the Alamanni at the Battle of Strasbourg.
• By 360 CE, he had been proclaimed Augustus by his troops while in Lutetia, further elevating the city’s status.

3. The Significance of the Name Change

• The name change from Lutetia to Paris reflected the enduring influence of Gallic heritage in the region.
• It marked a shift from the older Roman designation to one more closely tied to local identity.
• This renaming foreshadowed the later importance of Paris as a medieval and modern capital, becoming the heart of the Frankish and later French kingdoms.

4. Conclusion: The Birth of Paris as a Lasting Identity

• The transition from Lutetia to Paris in 360 CE signaled the city's growing regional prominence.
• Although still a Roman city, Paris retained its Gallic roots, a blend of Roman and indigenous traditions that would shape its future identity.
• Over time, Paris would rise to become one of the most significant cities in European history, a transformation that began with its renaming in the late Roman period.

The orthodox Christian majority in the West consolidates its position after the death of Constantius, driving Arianist bishops from their sees.

Julian's Acclamation as Augustus and the Imminent Civil War (360–361 CE)

By 360 CE, Julian had proven himself to be an extraordinarily successful military leader, having defeated and expelled both the Alemanni and the Franks, restoring Roman control over the Rhine frontier. His victories had made him immensely popular with his legions, but they also aroused the jealousy of Constantius II, the reigning Augustus of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Constantius, who had always been suspicious of Julian’s growing influence, deliberately kept him short on funds and placed him under secret surveillance.

1. Constantius’ Attempt to Weaken Julian (Late 360 CE)

• In late 360 CE, while Julian was wintering at Lutetia (modern Paris), Constantius demanded a large number of his best troops, ostensibly to be sent for service in the East against the Persians.
• In reality, this move was designed to weaken Julian’s power in Gaul, ensuring that he could not challenge Constantius’ authority.

Julian, dutifully prepared his men to depart, but his troops, loyal to their general and unwilling to leave Gaul unprotected, mutinied.

2. Julian is Acclaimed as Augustus (Early 361 CE)

• Julian’s army, refusing to leave Gaul, declared him Augustus in early 361 CE.
• Despite his initial reluctance, Julian realized that the act was irreversible—he was now in open rebellionagainst Constantius.
• The news infuriated Constantius, who immediately rejected any negotiation or accommodation, treating Julian as a usurper.

3. Julian Prepares for War Against Constantius

• Recognizing that civil war was now inevitable, Julian decided to act first, preparing to march eastward and confront Constantius before he could strike first.
• His legions in Gaul were loyal, and he sought to rally additional forces to his cause.
• His brilliant military record and charismatic leadership ensured that many Roman officers and officials secretly sympathized with him.

4. The Path to Civil War

• As Julian mobilized his forces, Constantius began preparing for a campaign against him.
• However, fate intervened: before any battle took place, Constantius suddenly fell ill and died in late 361 CE.
• On his deathbed, Constantius unexpectedly named Julian as his successor, abruptly ending the conflict before it could begin.

5. Conclusion: Julian’s Ascendancy

• Julian’s proclamation as Augustus in 361 CE marked a turning point in Roman history, as he became sole ruler of the empire.
• His rise to power demonstrated the importance of military loyalty, as his legions had been the key factor in his rebellion.
• Julian’s reign (361–363 CE) would soon become famous for:
  • His attempts to revive paganism in a now predominantly Christian empire.
  • His campaign against the Sassanid Persians, which would ultimately lead to his untimely death in 363 CE.

Though Julian had been forced into rebellion, his ascension ultimately proved bloodless, as the death of Constantius II removed his only rival. Now, the empire would witness one of its most unique rulers—a philosopher-emperor who would seek to reverse Constantine’s Christianization of Rome and return it to pagan traditions.

Julian, after accepting the acclamation by his troops as emperor, moves swiftly with his army through southern Germany to Pannonia, captures Constantius’s unresisting legate at Sirmium (present-day Sremska Mitrovika), then advances toward Constantinople.

Constantius, recalled to the West in 361 by the revolt of Julian, becomes ill on the way and, having on his deathbed accepted the inevitable by bequeathing the empire to Julian, dies on November 3 at Mopsucrenae, Honorias, near Tarsus (now in Turkey).

Having now become sole Augustus, Julian greatly simplifies the life of the palace and reduces its expenses.

He issues proclamations in which he declares his intention to rule as a philosopher, on the model of Marcus Aurelius.

All Christian bishops exiled by Constantius are allowed to return to their sees (although the purpose of this may have been to promote dissension among the Christians), and an edict of 361 proclaims freedom of worship for all religions.

He publicly announces his conversion to paganism at this time, thus acquiring the epithet “the Apostate.”