Near East (477–334 BCE): Cultural Shifts, Religious Developments, and Persian Influence

From 477 to 334 BCE, the Near East experiences significant cultural shifts, religious developments, and fluctuating Persian dominance, profoundly influencing the region's historical trajectory.

In Egypt, periodic revolts, frequently supported by Greek military assistance, initially fail to break Persian dominance until 404 BCE. Subsequently, Egypt achieves a tenuous independence under a series of short-lived native dynasties—the Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth, and Thirtieth—until 343 BCE, when Persia reinstates oppressive control, marking the Thirty-first Dynasty or second Persian occupation, persisting until Alexander the Great’s arrival in 332 BCE. Egyptian resistance to Persian hegemony underscores the complexities of imperial governance, particularly in distant and culturally distinct provinces.

Meanwhile, in southwestern Anatolia and neighboring Greek territories under Persian rule, cultural expression flourishes. Praxiteles creates the celebrated Aphrodite of Cnidus, a revolutionary depiction of the nude goddess Aphrodite. Initially rejected for its boldness by Kos, the statue finds acclaim in Knidos, becoming one of the ancient world’s most famous artworks and emblematic of the cultural vitality within Persian-controlled Greek cities.

In Judah, now known as Yehud, Persian authority is relatively firm yet accommodating. Local high priests administer Yehud, preserving political and religious autonomy centered around Jerusalem. Emphasis on Torah adherence, Sabbath observance, dietary laws, and rituals like circumcision solidify Jewish cultural identity, ensuring community cohesion and distinctiveness within the Persian Empire. The compilation and editing of significant texts, including Leviticus, Numbers, and portions of Zechariah, during the Persian period, further strengthens religious and cultural identity.

The Persian provinces of Samaria and Ammon remain under governors of local elite families, notably the houses of Sanballat and Tobiah. Rejected by Judahite returnees from Babylon, the Samaritans build their own temple in Shechem at Mount Gerizim, asserting their distinct identity and religious practices.

Throughout this period, Persian dominance encounters recurring challenges, notably the Revolt of the Satraps (362–359 BCE), led by regional governors such as Orontes, Mausolus of Caria, Autophradates of Lydia, and Datames of Cappadocia. Despite initial success and support from Greek cities and external powers like Sparta and Athens, internal distrust and betrayals ultimately cause the rebellion's collapse, allowing Persia to restore centralized authority.

As Persian influence solidifies post-rebellion, regional powers like Mausolus in Caria balance imperial oversight with localized governance, creating flourishing cultural hubs like Halicarnassus. Cities in Lydia, Ionia, and Cyprus similarly experience prosperity and cultural vibrancy under stabilized Persian rule.

By 334 BCE, the Near East emerges as a rich tapestry of Persian political control, dynamic local cultures, and significant religious evolution, laying the groundwork for the transformative impacts of Alexander the Great's imminent campaigns.

A rebellion of several satraps in the Achaemenid Empire against the authority of the Great King Artaxerxes II Mnemon begins in 372 BCE.

The Illyrians, ethnically akin to the Thracians, had originally inhabited a large area from the Istrian Peninsula to northern Greece and as far inland as the Morava River, but Celtic invasions during the fourth century BCE push the Illyrians southward from the northern Adriatic coast, and hereafter their territory does not extend much farther north than the Drin River.

Illyrian society, like that of the Thracians, is organized around tribal groups who often fight wars with one another and with outsiders.

Cotys, king of Thrace, opposes Ariobarzanes of Phrygia, and his ally, the Athenians, on their revolt  from Persian rule.

He goes to war with the Athenians soon after for the possession of the Thracian Chersonese.

Athens, now that she cannot trust Iphicrates to protect her interests, organizes a rebellion against Cotys, led by his treasurer Miltokythes.

Iphicrates, having retired to Thrace, fights also for the Thracian king against Athens: with the help of Charidemus, a Greek mercenary leader from Euboea who had served under Iphicrates at Amphipolis, he bribes the Athenian military and naval commanders to suppress the rebellion.

Charidemus, captured by the Athenians, is taken into their service and receives their citizenship, but in 362, he is discharged.

After participating in the revolt of satraps in Persia, he again joins Cotys, and returns to Athens in 361 with a treaty from Cotys, proclaiming him an ally.

Cotys has successfully retained his kingdom.

By 359 BCE, Cotys controls the whole Chersonese peninsula.

During the same year he makes an alliance with the new Macedonian king, Philip II.

In 358 BCE, he is murdered by two of Plato’s students from Aenus, Python and Heraclides.

Thought previously as advisers to the King, they murdered him during a feast in his palace, under the pretext that he had wronged their father.

Upon their return to Athens, they are proclaimed honorary citizens and rewarded with gold wreaths.

On Cotys' murder, Charidemus becomes guardian to the dead king's young son, Cersobleptes, in conjunction with Berisades and Amadocus II, who are probably his brothers.

He is very young at this time, and the whole management of his affairs is assumed by Charidemus, who is connected by marriage with the royal family.

The area controlled by Cersobleptes is east of the river Hebrus.

The Odrysian empire splits itself in three smaller kingdoms, of which this one, with the capital at Seuthopolis, is to survive the longest.

The Middle East: 369–358 BCE

Revolts and Realignments within the Persian Empire

This era in the Persian Empire under Artaxerxes II is marked by continued political turbulence, with satraps frequently challenging central authority. Following the resolution of Evagoras' rebellion in Cyprus, unrest flares again in the empire’s western provinces, notably in Anatolia, Phoenicia, and Egypt. These regions are consistently restive, driven by local ambitions, dissatisfaction with Persian rule, and encouragement from external powers, particularly Greek city-states.

In Egypt, Pharaoh Nectanebo I (reigned 380–362 BCE) strengthens defenses against Persian reconquest attempts and sponsors revolts in Syria and Palestine to divert Persian resources. This results in prolonged but indecisive warfare that weakens Persian control in the Levant.

Meanwhile, in Anatolia, Persian satraps continue to assert semi-autonomous authority, often forming informal alliances with influential Greek states. The Persian Empire, though still powerful, increasingly appears strained by internal dissent and external pressures, foreshadowing greater difficulties in maintaining cohesion over its extensive territories.

Despite these tensions, Artaxerxes II successfully manages the immediate crises through strategic use of diplomacy and selective military interventions. The empire remains intact, though clearly demonstrating vulnerabilities that future opponents, such as the rising kingdom of Macedon, will later exploit.

Near East (369–358 BCE): Revolt of the Satraps and Persian Restoration

Between 369 and 358 BCE, the Near East is significantly shaped by internal turmoil within the Persian Empire, prominently featuring the Revolt of the Satraps. This widespread insurrection represents the greatest challenge to Persian authority since the earlier revolt led by Cyrus the Younger.

Key figures in this revolt include Orontes, traditionally identified as the satrap of Mysia but possibly of Armenia, indicating an even broader geographical scope of rebellion. Joining Orontes are notable regional rulers such as Mausolus of Caria (briefly), Autophradates of Lydia, and the distinguished military commander Datames, satrap of Cappadocia. Datames, respected for his skill, had inherited his position around 384 BCE but rebelled in 372 BCE due to deteriorating relations with the Persian court. Despite efforts by neighboring satraps Autophradates and Artumpara of Lycia to suppress his rebellion, Datames successfully withstands their attacks.

Further complicating matters, Ariobarzanes, satrap of Phrygia and initially a temporary appointee in Hellespontine Phrygia, refuses to yield his authority to the legitimate heir, Artabazos, and joins the revolt around 366 BCE. He receives crucial support from King Agesilaus II of Sparta, enabling him temporarily to withstand a siege by Persian-aligned satraps, including Mausolus and Autophradates. Nevertheless, Ariobarzanes is ultimately betrayed and killed in 363 BCE by his son Mithradates.

Orontes emerges as the leader of the insurgent satraps due to his noble status, but internal distrust among the rebels undermines the revolt. Seeking compromise, Orontes eventually betrays his fellow satraps, leading to the swift collapse of the rebellion. Datames, betrayed by his son-in-law Mitrobarzanes, is assassinated, and Persian authority is systematically restored through a series of treacheries.

By the time of King Artaxerxes II's death in 359 BCE, the revolt is effectively quelled, less by decisive Persian military action than by internal rivalries among the insurgents themselves. This era underscores the persistent challenges to Persian dominance and highlights the complex interplay of local ambition and imperial control shaping the Near Eastern geopolitical landscape.

Orontes, described by the sources as satrap of Mysia, leads the last and greatest phase of the Revolt of the Satraps (362-359). (“Mysia”, possibly an enclave in the Troad region of Anatolia, could, however, also be an error for “Armenia.” If so, the geographic spread of the insurrectionist satraps is still greater.)

The other rebelling satraps are Mausolus of Caria (briefly) and …

…Autophradates of Lydia.

Some participation by local Greek cities in Anatolia is possible, though perhaps they merely follow the lead of their satrapal overlords; Athens and Sparta seem surreptitiously to have helped.

The aims of the revolt are a matter for speculation, but it looks serious: a second and successful Cunaxa is a possibility.

The satraps, however, are divided by mutual distrust.

Datames, the satrap of Cappadocia and a talented military commander, had after 384 BCE inherited his satrapy from his father Camissares.

He is a respected military commander but later problems with the court led him to revolt in 372 BCE.

The Persian court commanded the neighboring satraps, Autophradates of Lydia and Artumpara of Lycia, to crush the rebellion but Datames successfully resists their attacks.

Ariobarzanes, satrap of Phrygia and son of the ruler of Pontus, had been made acting satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia until Artabazos, the legitimate heir of the satrapy, could take office, but when Artabazos is ready to take the satrapy, Ariobarzanes refuses to surrender it and in 366 BCE joins Datames' revolt.

Ariobarzanes seeks foreign aid and receives it from King Agesilaus II of Sparta.

Ariobarzanes withstands a siege from Mausolus of Caria and Autophradates of Lydia until Agesilaus negotiates the besiegers’ retreat.

Ariobarzanes is killed in 363, betrayed by his son Mithradates.

Orontes, satrap of Armenia, revolts in 362 after he is ordered by the King to move to Mysia.

His noble birth leads the other satraps to recognize him as leader of the revolt but Orontes later seeks a compromise with the King and betrays the other satraps, after which the rebellion soon collapses.

Orontes receives much of the Aegean coast while Datames is killed after his son-in-law Mitrobarzanes betrays him.

Ariobarzanes is also killed but the other satraps are pardoned, thus ending the rebellion.

The rebellion is finally put down by Persia through a series of treacheries.

The revolt is over at the date of Artaxerxes' death in 359, Achaemenid authority having been restored over most of the empire—more from internal rivalries and discord than from Artaxerxes' efforts.

Dionysius I of Syracuse has warred against Carthage with mixed success; his attempts to drive the Carthaginians entirely out of Sicily fail, and they are masters of at least a third of the island at his death in 367 BCE.

Thebes, when the city's proposals at Susa inevitably fail, seizes the valuable border territory of Oropus, and …