Spanish Christian-Muslim War of 977-97

Ibn Abi Amir (known as Almanzor, or Al Mansur), the royal vizier, becomes regent (981-1002) and establishes himself as virtual dictator when Hisham II, grandson of Abd al Rahman III, inherits the throne in 976 at age twelve.

The caliph is no more than a figurehead for the next twenty-six years, and Al Mansur is the actual ruler.

Al Mansur wants the caliphate to symbolize the ideal of religious and political unity as insurance against any renewal of civil strife.

Notwithstanding his employment of Christian mercenaries, Al Mansur preaches jihad, or holy war, against the Christian states on the frontier, undertaking annual summer campaigns against them, which serves not only to unite Spanish Muslims in a common cause but also to extend temporary Muslim control in the north.

Most Polabian Slavs see Jesus as a "German god" and remain pagan, despite the efforts of Christian missionaries.

In the Great Slav Rising in 983, the pagan Slavs revolt against their subjugation to the Kingdom of the Eastern Franks, aka East Francia.

The Slavic Lutici and Obotrite people, who live to the east of the Elbe in modern northeast Germany, defeat Emperor Otto II in at the Battle of Stilo in 982, then rebel against the Germans the following year.

The Hevelli and Lutici destroy the Bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg., and some Slavs advance across the Elbe into Saxon territory, but retreat when the Christian Duke of the Polans, Mieszko I, attacks them from the East.

The Holy Roman Empire retains only nominal control over the Slavic territories between the Elbe and the Oder.

Abu Aamir Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abi Aamir, born in the area of Algeciras and descended from a noble member of the Arab army that conquered Spain, had arrived at the Umayyad Court of Cordoba as a student studying law and literature.

He began his career as a professional letter writer, becoming the protégé; (and supposedly the lover) of the mother of the young Hisham II, becoming manager of the infant prince’s estates.

In the space of a few years, he had schemed his way from this humble position to considerable heights of influence, eliminating his political rivals in the process.

When Caliph Al-Hakam died in 976, Ibn Abi Amir had been instrumental in securing the succession of the young Hisham II, aged twelve, to the throne.

With the aid of his father-in-law, General Galib ibn Abd al-Rahman, he overthrows and succeeds the Hajib (a title similar to that of Grand Vizier in the Muslim East), or Chancellor in 978.

By giving African territories local independence under Umayyad suzerainty, Abu Aamir Muhammad reduces the drain on government resources.

Abu Aamir Muhammad has during the ensuing three years consolidated his power with the building of his new palace on the outskirts of Córdoba, al-Madina az-Zahira, while at the same time completely isolating the young Caliph, who has become a virtual prisoner in Medina Azahara.

General Galib, grown fearful of his son-in-law’s power, has allied himself with the Christian kings of León, Castile, and Navarre.

Abu Aamir Muhammad, having strengthened his Moorish army, had invaded León in 977 and, after four years of fighting, defeats and kills Galib in battle.

A triumphant Abu Aamir Muhammad returns in 981 from his victories in the north to Córdoba, having earned the honorific title al-Mansur bi-Allah (“victorious through Allah), and rules al-Andalus as regent for Hisham II.

He becomes known to the European Christians as Almanzor.

His grip over Al-Andalus now absolute, Al-Mansur dedicates himself to military campaigns against the Christian states of the peninsula.

All told, he will organize and take part in fifty-seven campaigns, and will be victorious in all of them.

To wage these campaigns against the Christian states, he brings in many Berber mercenaries, which will upset the political order over time.

Almanzor’s Victory Over Ramiro III and the Destruction of Zamora (981 CE)

After defeating his father-in-law, Galib ibn Abd al-Rahman, Almanzor consolidates his position as the de facto ruler of Al-Andalus. With his authority secured, he turns his attention northward, seeking to expand Muslim control over the Christian kingdoms of Iberia.

In 981 CE, Almanzor decisively defeats King Ramiro III of León at the Battle of Zamora, further weakening the Christian resistance. As part of his northern campaign, he captures and utterly destroys the city of Zamora, ensuring it can no longer serve as a Christian stronghold.

This victory marks the beginning of Almanzor’s relentless campaigns against the Christian north, a series of devastating raids that will culminate in the sacking of major cities like Santiago de Compostela in the years to come.

Almanzor’s Second Victory Over Ramiro III at Simancas

Following his destruction of Zamora in 981 CE, Almanzor continues his campaign against the Christian kingdoms, once again confronting King Ramiro III of León at Simancas.

In this second engagement, Almanzor defeats Ramiro III, further consolidating Muslim dominance over the region. This successive defeat weakens the Kingdom of León, accelerating its internal decline and leaving it increasingly vulnerable to Umayyad military pressure.

Almanzor’s victories at Zamora and Simancas mark a turning point in the struggle between Al-Andalus and the Christian north, as his relentless campaigns continue to devastate the Leonese and Castilian frontiers.

Almanzor’s Sack of Coimbra and the Submission of the Counts of Portugal

As part of his northern campaigns, Almanzor continues his relentless offensive against the Christian kingdoms. In 987 CE, he captures and sacks Coimbra, a city that had been under Christian control since 904 CE. Following this devastating attack, Coimbra is said to have remained deserted for six years, underscoring the destruction inflicted by Almanzor’s forces.

Muslim Authority in Gharb al-Andalus and Its Limitations

With renewed Cordoban dominance in Gharb al-Andalus (the western part of Muslim Iberia), the Christian counts of Portugal submit to Córdoba, recognizing Muslim supremacy in the region. However, despite these military victories, the episode also highlights the limitations of Muslim rule in these remote northern territories.

Although Almanzor succeeds in enforcing submission, the Muslim authorities struggle to repopulate or directly govern the lands they reconquer. This difficulty reflects the challenging geography and the persistent resistance of local Christian communities, which will eventually reclaim these territories in the centuries to come.

Although Almanzor mainly fights against León and Castile, he attacks the Hispanic March in 985 and manages to take Barcelona, which is sacked and put to the torch on July 1.

Many citizens are taken prisoner by the Muslim forces.

Borrell II, Count of Barcelona, sends a request for help to Lothair, the current King of the Western Franks, but although documents of Borrell's refer to royal orders that must have come from this embassy, actual military assistance is beyond Lothair's power.

What appears to have been a similar plea to Hugh Capet results in a letter from Hugh to Borrell promising aid if the Count preferred "to obey us rather than the Ishmaelites", but in any event Hugh cannot persuade his nobles to support a southern expedition.

No answer to Hugh's letter is known from Borrell, and the connection between the March and France is effectively broken.

(Catalan historians now consider this the point at which their nation became a sovereign power, and the millennium of their independence was celebrated in 1987 with conferences and numerous publications; however it appears that Catalan counties other than Borrell's retained links with the Frankish crown for a little longer.)

In tenth century Andalusia, unlike Germany, it is common for Jews to own vineyards and other lands.

In the course of Almanzor’s invasion, he has killed a number of Barcelonan Jews, many of them landowners who leave no heirs.

According to the law, all their lands are given over to the Count of Barcelona.

Bermudo II’s Usurpation and Conflict with Almanzor (984–987 CE)

In 984 CE, Bermudo II, with military support from Navarre and the powerful Almanzor, usurps the throne of León from Ramiro III, plunging the kingdom into civil war. His rise to power further destabilizes León, already weakened by previous Muslim invasions and internal strife.

Break with Córdoba and Almanzor’s Retaliation (987 CE)

After securing his throne, Bermudo II expels Cordoban mercenaries from León in 987 CE, breaking his alliance with Almanzor. This act provokes a swift and decisive response from the ruler of Al-Andalus, who assembles a large invasion force to punish León and assert Muslim dominance over the northern Christian realms.

This conflict will culminate in devastating raids on Leónese territory, as Almanzor intensifies his military campaigns against the Christian north.

The Hispanic March had been attacked in 985 by the Muslim general al-Mansur, who managed to take Barcelona, which was pillaged and sacked, with many citizens taken prisoner by the Muslim forces.

Borrell had sent a request for help to King Lothar III of the Western Franks, but although documents of Borrell's refer to royal orders that must have come from this embassy, actual military assistance was beyond Lothar's power.

What appears to have been a similar plea to Hugh Capet resulted in a letter from Hugh to Borrell promising aid for vassalage, but in any event Hugh could not persuade his nobles to support a southern expedition.

No answer to Hugh's letter is known from Borrell, and the connection between the March and France was effectively broken.

Catalan historians now consider this the point at which their nation became a sovereign power, and the millennium of their independence will be celebrated in 1987 with conferences and numerous publications; however it appears that Catalan counties other than Borrell's retained links with the Frankish crown for a little longer.

Borrell's sons Ramon Borrell and Ermengol appear from 988 as rulers in a divided territory, with Ramon Borrell being count of Barcelona, Girona, and Osona and …