After Ulaszlo, Hungary's nobles choose an infant king, Laszlo V, and a regent, Janos Hunyadi, to rule the country until Laszlo V comes of age.

The son of a lesser nobleman of the Vlach tribe, Hunyadi has risen to become a general, Transylvania's military governor, one of Hungary's largest landowners, and a war hero.

He uses his personal wealth and the support of the lesser nobles to win the regency and overcome the opposition of the magnates.

Hunyadi then establishes a mercenary army funded by the first tax ever imposed on Hungary's nobles.

He defeats the Ottoman forces in Transylvania in 1442 and breaks their hold on Serbia in 1443, only to be routed at Varna (where Laszlo V himself perishes) a year later.

In 1456, when the Turkish army besieges Belgrade, Hunyadi defeats it in his greatest and final victory.

Hunyadi dies of the plague soon after.

The steady stream of Ottoman victories in the Balkans continues under Bayezid I (r. 1389-1402).

Bulgaria had been subdued in 1393, and in 1396 a French-led force of crusaders that had crossed the Danube from Hungary is annihilated at Nicopolis.

The Middle East: 1432–1443 CE

Strategic Consolidations and Cultural Flourishing

Kara Koyunlu Consolidation under Jahan Shah

By 1435, Jahan Shah emerges victorious over his brother and rival Qara Iskander, solidifying his control as the uncontested leader of the Kara Koyunlu. Under his rule, their dominance over Baghdad and western Persia is reinforced, initiating a period characterized by stability and cultural patronage, particularly evident in advancements in architecture and the arts.

Ottoman Expansion and Diplomacy

The Ottoman Empire, guided by the strategic leadership of Murad II, significantly expands its influence into the Balkans. Murad consolidates Ottoman authority through military success and adept diplomacy, setting the stage for future victories such as the decisive Battle of Varna in 1444. His policies effectively secure Ottoman dominance in the region, further entrenching the empire’s territorial ambitions.

Georgian Economic and Cultural Renaissance

The revitalized Kingdom of Georgia continues its trajectory of economic prosperity and cultural revival. Benefiting from sustained peace and enhanced trade networks, Georgia witnesses notable developments in literature, religious architecture, and fine arts. The kingdom reaffirms its status as a vital cultural intermediary between Eastern and Western traditions.

Timurid Cultural Zenith under Shah Rukh

Under the rule of Shah Rukh, the Timurid Empire experiences an unparalleled cultural zenith centered at the capital, Herat. Shah Rukh fosters a rich intellectual climate, promoting scientific inquiry, literary production, and artistic creativity. This cultural renaissance significantly enhances Persian culture, influencing subsequent artistic and intellectual traditions.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1432 to 1443 marks a phase of strategic consolidation and vibrant cultural flourishing across the Middle East. Jahan Shah's establishment of stable rule over the Kara Koyunlu, the Ottoman Empire's notable territorial expansions under Murad II, the ongoing Georgian renaissance, and the Timurid cultural achievements under Shah Rukh collectively define a dynamic and pivotal era in Middle Eastern history.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1444–1455 CE): Fall of Constantinople and Ottoman Consolidation

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Ottoman Capture of Constantinople

The defining event of this era, the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, dramatically altered settlement patterns in Eastern Southeast Europe. Following the city's fall to Sultan Mehmed II ("the Conqueror"), Constantinople transitioned from a Christian Byzantine capital into a predominantly Muslim city, renamed Istanbul and rapidly repopulated by Ottoman settlers, merchants, soldiers, and administrative officials from across the empire.

Post-Byzantine Population Shifts

The collapse of the Byzantine Empire triggered migrations as many Byzantine Greeks, Latins, and Slavs fled Ottoman rule, relocating toward Western Europe, Italy, and territories still resisting Ottoman domination, notably Hungary, Venice-controlled coastal regions, and the Serbian Despotate. These migrations significantly reshaped the region’s demographic and cultural landscape.

Economic and Technological Developments

Istanbul as Imperial Economic Center

Under Ottoman rule, Istanbul swiftly reemerged as a vibrant economic hub, linking European and Asian trade networks. The city’s strategic location enhanced its role as a commercial nexus for silk, spices, grain, and luxury goods, significantly benefiting from imperial investments in ports, caravanserais, bazaars, and infrastructure.

Military Innovation and Siege Warfare

The 1453 siege of Constantinople exemplified Ottoman advancements in military technology and strategy, including the deployment of massive siege artillery, most notably the great bombard designed by Hungarian engineer Orban. Ottoman mastery in artillery and siegecraft thereafter became legendary, greatly influencing European military practices.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Ottoman Cultural Renaissance

The conquest of Constantinople provided significant cultural momentum for the Ottomans. Under Mehmed II’s patronage, the city underwent extensive reconstruction, blending classical Byzantine architecture with Islamic art and design. The transformation of the Hagia Sophia from a church into a mosque symbolized this new cultural synthesis, influencing architecture throughout the empire.

Byzantine Legacy and Diaspora

Despite the political collapse, Byzantine scholars and intellectuals fleeing westward contributed profoundly to the Italian Renaissance, bringing with them classical manuscripts, philosophical treatises, and scientific knowledge. This diaspora preserved significant elements of Byzantine heritage in Western Europe, enriching European intellectual and cultural life.

Social and Religious Developments

Establishment of Islamic Dominance

Islam rapidly established dominance as the primary faith and administrative system in newly conquered territories. Mosques, medreses, and Islamic institutions proliferated in Istanbul and other captured cities, profoundly reshaping social structures and religious identities across Eastern Southeast Europe.

Status of Christian Populations

Under Ottoman rule, non-Muslim populations, primarily Christians and Jews, received protected yet subordinate status (dhimmi). Christians were allowed religious autonomy but faced taxation (jizya) and periodic forced conscription through the devshirme system. The Fall of Constantinople deepened religious divides, significantly altering regional interfaith relations.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

End of the Byzantine Empire

The capture of Constantinople by Mehmed II in 1453 conclusively ended the Byzantine Empire, marking a seismic shift in regional power dynamics. Ottoman expansion rapidly subsumed remaining Byzantine, Latin, and Slavic territories across the Balkans and Anatolia, asserting uncontested political dominance.

Crusade of Varna and Christian Resistance

The era began with the catastrophic Crusade of Varna (1443–1444), where Hungarian, Serbian, and Wallachian forces, allied in resistance against Ottoman expansion, suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Varna in November 1444. This defeat crippled organized Christian resistance, facilitating subsequent Ottoman advances throughout Eastern Europe.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

From 1444 to 1455 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe underwent transformative changes epitomized by the Fall of Constantinople and subsequent Ottoman consolidation. This era decisively ended Byzantine civilization, reshaped regional demographics, and established Istanbul as the Ottoman Empire's enduring political, cultural, and economic capital. The events of this period profoundly influenced European history, marking a pivotal transition between medieval and early modern eras.

The Crusade of Varna, a string of events in 1443–44 between the Kingdom of Hungary, the Serbian Despotate, the Principality of Wallachia and the Ottoman Empire, culminates in a devastating Christian loss at the Battle of Varna on November 10, 1444.

The Middle East: 1444–1455 CE

Military Triumphs and Cultural Resilience

Ottoman Ascendancy at Varna

In 1444, Murad II achieves a decisive victory at the Battle of Varna, defeating a significant Christian coalition led by the Kingdom of Hungary. This triumph confirms the Ottoman Empire's dominance in the Balkans and ensures continued expansion in southeastern Europe. Murad II's strategic prowess at Varna significantly alters the political balance, securing Ottoman influence for decades to come.

Consolidation and Cultural Patronage under Jahan Shah

The Kara Koyunlu ruler Jahan Shah continues consolidating power over Baghdad and western Persia, overseeing a period marked by political stability and cultural patronage. Under his rule, Tabriz flourishes as a significant center for Persian culture, fostering notable advancements in literature, poetry, and architecture. Jahan Shah's patronage of the arts reinforces the cultural legacy of the Kara Koyunlu.

Georgian Stability and Cultural Flourishing

The Kingdom of Georgia maintains its cultural and economic renaissance, supported by a period of relative peace and political stability. Georgian literature and religious art continue to thrive, furthering the kingdom's role as a crucial cultural bridge between East and West. The period sees significant contributions to religious and secular architecture, reflecting the kingdom's prosperity.

Timurid Cultural Apex under Ulugh Beg

Following the death of Shah Rukh in 1447, his son Ulugh Beg, renowned as a scholar-king, assumes control of the Timurid Empire from his capital in Samarkand. Ulugh Beg promotes a remarkable intellectual environment, particularly advancing astronomical studies and establishing a celebrated observatory in Samarkand. His reign, though politically turbulent, represents a peak of Timurid cultural and scientific achievement.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1444 to 1455 is defined by military successes, political stability, and profound cultural contributions. Murad II's triumph at Varna secures lasting Ottoman influence in Europe, Jahan Shah's patronage enriches Persian culture under the Kara Koyunlu, Georgia continues its cultural renaissance, and Ulugh Beg's astronomical and intellectual accomplishments represent the high point of Timurid scientific advancement. Together, these elements underscore the Middle East's resilience and continued vibrancy during a critical historical juncture.

Murad, his power in the Balkans broken by the European crusade led by Wladyslaw III of Hungary and Poland-Lithuania, is fearful of the potential for future losses.

Murad is believed to have had the greatest wish for peace.

Among other things, his sister has begged him to obtain the release of her husband Mahmud Bey, son-in-law of the Sultan and brother of the Grand Vizier Çandarlı Halil Pasha; his wife Mara, daughter of Serbian ruler Đurađ Branković, adds additional pressure.

On March 6, 1444, Mara had sent an envoy to Branković; their discussion had started the peace negotiations with the Ottoman Empire.

Władysław III of Poland sends a letter to Murad on April 24, 1444, stating that his ambassador, Stojka Gisdanić, is traveling to Edirne with full powers to negotiate on his behalf.

He asks that, once an agreement is reached, Murad send his own ambassadors with the treaty and his sworn oath to Hungary, at which point Wladyslaw could also swear.

This same day, Wladyslaw holds a Diet at Buda, where he swears before Cardinal Julian Cesarini to lead a new expedition against the Ottomans in the summer.

The strongest remaining supporter of Wladyslaw's claim for the throne also agrees to a truce, thus removing the danger of another civil war.

The increased influence of the Turkish notables at Murad's court lead the sultan to agree to the Peace of Edirne, by which Serbia is to regain its autonomy, Hungary is to keep Wallachia and Belgrade, and the Ottomans are to promise to end their raids north of the Danube.

Early negotiations result in the release of Mahmud Bey, who arrives in Edirne around early June 1444.

Wladyslaw's ambassador Stojka Gisdanić arrives soon after, along with, as required by a law signed by King Albert, the brilliant general John Hunyadi's representative Vitislav, and two representatives for Branković.

At the behest of Pope Eugene IV, the antiquarian Ciriaco Pizzicolli is also present to monitor the progress of crusade plans.

During the negotiations, the most contentious point is the possession of Danubian fortresses, especially Golubac and Smederevo, which the Ottomans wish to retain.

However, on June 12, 1444, after three days of discussion, the treaty is hastily completed because Ibrahim of Karaman has invaded Murad's lands in Anatolia.

The final terms state that Murad is to return twenty-four Serbian cities, including the large fortresses of Golubac and Smederevo, to the exiled Branković.

Murad is also obliged release Branković's two blinded sons, Grgur and Stefan.

The restored Serbian Despotate is vassalaged to the Ottomans, however, so has to pay taxes and offer military aid.

A ten-year truce is established with Hungary, and Vlad Dracul, Voivode of Wallachia, is no longer obliged to attend Murad's court, although he is still required to pay tribute.

Once Murad has sworn an oath to observe the treaty, it is sent to Hungary with Baltaoğlu Süleyman and a Greek, Vranas, for ratification by Wladyslaw, Hunyadi, and Branković.

Wladyslaw's plan for the crusade against the Ottomans continues despite the progressing treaty.

It is generally assumed that Wladyslaw knew the results of the negotiations in Edirne by the beginning of July.

Yet Wladyslaw, at the urging of Cardinal Cesarini, on July 2, 1444, reassures his allies of his intentions to lead the crusade by declaring he will head to Várad on July 15 to assemble an army.

The reassurance is necessary because the strength of Wladyslaw’s resolve does not match that of his public statements.

Though he is under significant pressure to carry out the expedition, he receives equal pressure to abandon it entirely.

A crusade will add legitimacy to Wladyslaw's claim to the throne, and a Polish faction especially wants verification of his right to rule over the infant Ladislaus.

He also faces Cesarini, who fervently believes in the crusade, and has incredible powers of persuasion.

By the time the King makes his declaration, word of the peace negotiations has spread, prompting added pressure by pro-crusaders, including Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, to renounce the treaty.

Meanwhile, in Poland, there is civil strife, and a faction there demands he return to end it.

The losses during the war in the winter of 1443 have likely also disinclined Wladyslaw to start another war.

Above all, the continuing peace negotiations are in direct opposition to war.

The Ottoman ambassadors Baltaoğlu and Vranas arrive in Szeged at the beginning of August On August 4, 1444, Cardinal Cesarini implements the solution he has created for the King.

With Hunyadi, the barons, and the prelates of the Kingdom of Hungary in attendance, Wladyslaw is made to "abjure any treaties, present or future, which he had made or was to make with the Sultan."

Cesarini has carefully worded the declaration such that negotiations can continue and the treaty can still be ratified by oath, without canceling the possibility of a crusade or breaking the terms of the treaty because the oath had been invalidated even before it is given.

Despite Cesarini's solution, the negotiations last for ten days.

The final version of the treaty reestablishes Serbia as a buffer state and settles its return to Branković, as well as the return of Albania and all other territory conquered, including twenty-four fortresses, to Hungary.

The Ottomans also have to pay an indemnity of one hundred thousand gold florins and release Branković's two sons.

Hungary, meanwhile, agrees to not attack Bulgaria or cross the Danube, and a truce of ten years is established.

It is also suspected that Branković, who gained the most from the treaty, concluded his own private negotiations with Baltaoğlu, though the results are unknown.