The Near East (4221–4078 BCE): Early Trade Networks and Cultural Exchange

Interregional Trade Expansion

This period witnesses a substantial growth in trade between Upper and Lower Egypt, evidenced by artifacts such as stone vases from the northern regions found at el-Amra. Copper, absent in Egypt's natural environment, is likely imported from Sinai or Nubia, while obsidian, a volcanic glass used for tool-making, and limited amounts of gold are definitively sourced from Nubia. The trade network further includes the desert oases, facilitating broader cultural exchanges and economic interactions across the region. These burgeoning trade routes fostered increasing complexity and interdependence among early Near Eastern societies.