Spain’s two most urgent problems—ending the civil war unleashed by the Carlists, the partisans of the successors to the Spanish throne in the male line, and drafting the constitution—are both settled in 1876.

The Bourbon pretender to the Spanish throne, Carlos, Duke of Madrid, aka Carlos VII, had organized and now leads the Third Carlist War as the effective ruler much of peninsular Spain between 1872 and 1876.

The pronunciamiento by Martinez Campos had established Alfonso XII as King of Spain on December 29, 1874, marking the end of the First Spanish Republic.

The new Spanish commander, General Fernando Primo de Rivera, marches on February 2 on the remaining Carlist stronghold at Estella, where he meets a force of about sixteen hundred men under General Carlos Calderón at nearby Montejurra.

Calderón is forced to withdraw after a courageous and costly defense, nd the government troops take the town on February 19.

The Carlist forces have not succeeded, and their promises have not been fulfilled.

The Carlist pretender goes into into exile in France on February 28, bringing the four-year conflict to an end.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1912–1923 CE): War, Crisis, and National Transformation

The era from 1912 to 1923 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe—encompassing the Italian Peninsula, southern and eastern Spain, southern Portugal, Andorra, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta—is profoundly shaped by the turmoil of World War I, post-war economic and social upheaval, the rise of authoritarian movements, and evolving cultural identities.

Italy: World War I, Post-War Turmoil, and Rise of Fascism

Italy enters World War I (1915–1918) on the side of the Entente Powers, driven by promises of territorial gains from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Despite eventual victory, Italy's post-war period is marked by profound disillusionment, economic hardship, and social unrest. Disappointed by the modest territorial rewards granted at the Treaty of Versailles, Italian nationalists condemn this "mutilated victory," fueling widespread resentment.

The resultant instability provides fertile ground for radical ideologies. In 1919, Benito Mussolini founds the Fascist Party, rapidly gaining popularity by exploiting national grievances and promising order, economic revival, and renewed national prestige. Mussolini's March on Rome in October 1922 culminates in King Victor Emmanuel III appointing him Prime Minister, marking the start of authoritarian rule in Italy.

Spain: Neutrality and Deepening Internal Struggles

During World War I, Spain remains neutral, benefiting economically by supplying wartime Europe but exacerbating social disparities domestically. The profits from neutrality fuel industrial and financial growth, particularly in urban centers like Barcelona and Madrid, yet simultaneously deepen social tensions between the working class and the ruling elites.

Post-war Spain is characterized by escalating social conflicts, anarchist activism, regionalist movements, and frequent governmental instability. The deepening crisis ultimately prompts a military coup led by General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923, who establishes a military dictatorship promising to restore order and stability, suppressing parliamentary politics and regional autonomy movements.

Andorra: Continued Cultural Growth and Political Stability

Andorra continues its gradual cultural and social modernization, largely insulated from the upheavals impacting larger neighbors. The principality's participation in the Catalan Renaixença remains robust, strengthening its distinct Catalan identity through education and cultural institutions. Politically stable, Andorra maintains its traditional dual sovereignty between the French President and the Bishop of Urgell, successfully balancing tradition and modernity during this tumultuous period.

Malta: Strategic Importance and Emerging Nationalism

As a critical naval base within the British Empire during World War I, Malta experiences substantial economic benefit and infrastructural improvements due to increased British military presence. Yet, the war's aftermath sees growing nationalist sentiments and demands for greater political autonomy. Political organizations advocating Maltese self-government gain traction, highlighting emerging tensions between the island’s colonial dependence and aspirations for self-determination.

Conclusion: Transition and Authoritarianism

From 1912 to 1923, Mediterranean Southwest Europe undergoes dramatic transformations—Italy experiences the trauma of war followed by the establishment of fascism, Spain plunges deeper into political instability leading to dictatorship, while Andorra and Malta each navigate their paths through cultural reaffirmation and political evolution. This era sets the stage for significant geopolitical and social changes in subsequent decades, deeply influencing regional and global history.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1924–1935 CE): Consolidation of Authoritarianism and Social Change

The era from 1924 to 1935 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe—including the Italian Peninsula, southern and eastern Spain, southern Portugal, Andorra, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta—is dominated by the consolidation of authoritarian regimes, significant social transformations, economic challenges, and cultural evolutions.

Italy: Consolidation of Fascism and Totalitarian Rule

Under Benito Mussolini, Italy solidifies its transformation into a fascist state. Between 1924 and 1926, Mussolini systematically dismantles democratic institutions, suppresses opposition, and establishes a totalitarian regime characterized by aggressive nationalism, centralized control, and state intervention in the economy.

The Lateran Treaty of 1929 significantly stabilizes Mussolini’s regime by resolving the longstanding "Roman Question." The treaty establishes the Vatican City as an independent sovereign state and confirms Catholicism as Italy’s official religion, greatly enhancing Mussolini’s domestic legitimacy.

Despite authoritarian rule, Italy embarks on substantial modernization projects, notably in infrastructure, agriculture, and industry. Fascist policies promote demographic growth, social discipline, and militarization, setting the stage for Italy’s aggressive foreign policy leading toward war in the late 1930s.

Spain: The End of Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship and the Rise of the Second Republic

General Miguel Primo de Rivera initially stabilizes Spain through authoritarian measures after his 1923 coup, but economic hardship, political discontent, and mounting opposition erode his regime’s support. In 1930, Primo de Rivera resigns under immense pressure, leading to the collapse of his military dictatorship.

Following a brief transitional period under King Alfonso XIII, Spain’s political landscape undergoes a dramatic shift. In April 1931, the monarchy is abolished, and the Second Spanish Republic is proclaimed. The republic initiates extensive reforms aiming at secularization, regional autonomy, land redistribution, and improved labor rights. These measures, however, sharply polarize Spanish society, setting the stage for escalating political tensions and violence.

Andorra: Continued Stability and Economic Development

Andorra continues its trajectory of stable governance and gradual economic modernization, maintaining its unique political arrangement under the dual sovereignty of the French President and the Bishop of Urgell. Benefiting from relative insulation from wider European turmoil, Andorra sees improvements in infrastructure and tourism, gradually integrating further into regional economic networks.

Malta: Constitutional Advances and Rising National Consciousness

In Malta, nationalist movements advocating greater autonomy from British colonial rule gain significant ground. The 1921 constitution, granting responsible self-government, faces setbacks due to political conflicts and colonial intervention but ultimately strengthens Maltese national identity and political awareness.

Malta experiences significant social change as labor movements grow stronger and political parties emerge advocating workers’ rights and greater autonomy, laying crucial foundations for Malta's eventual independence aspirations.

Portugal: Political Instability and the Rise of Salazar’s Estado Novo

Portugal endures chronic political instability following the collapse of the First Republic (1910–1926). Military coups and frequent government changes culminate in the military coup of 1926, ushering in a dictatorial regime under military leadership. In 1932, economist António de Oliveira Salazar becomes prime minister, establishing the authoritarian Estado Novo regime.

Salazar’s Estado Novo emphasizes conservative Catholic values, economic austerity, national unity, and a corporatist economic model. This regime brings political stability and economic control but severely restricts political freedoms and suppresses dissent, profoundly reshaping Portuguese society and governance for decades.

Conclusion: Era of Authoritarian Consolidation and Social Transformation

Between 1924 and 1935, Mediterranean Southwest Europe experiences an era defined by the consolidation of authoritarian regimes in Italy and Portugal, a tumultuous but transformative republican experiment in Spain, and growing nationalist aspirations in Malta. Andorra continues its steady evolution, successfully balancing tradition and modernization. This period fundamentally reshapes the political, economic, and social fabric of the region, influencing developments for generations to come.