Near East (532–675 CE): Rise and Expansion of Islam

The Near East from 532 to 675 CE experiences profound transformations, primarily driven by the emergence and rapid expansion of Islam, a new monotheistic faith that challenges and reshapes the region's religious, political, and social landscapes.

Early Byzantine Context and Christian Developments

The period begins with Christian glorification continuing under Byzantine emperor Justinian (527–565 CE), who rebuilds the Church of the Resurrection (Holy Sepulchre) in Jerusalem and establishes many churches, monasteries, and hospices. Christianity spreads into Nubia around 540 CE, notably through Monophysite missionaries sent by Empress Theodora, creating strong ecclesiastical links with Coptic Christianity in Egypt.

In 541 CE, the Plague of Justinian, first reported by historian Procopius from Pelusium near Suez, severely affects the region, contributing to the weakening of Byzantine rule.

Prelude to Islamic Expansion

Arabia experiences significant changes with the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen suffering catastrophic breaches in 570 or 575 CE, leading to large-scale migrations and signaling the decline of South Arabian kingdoms. In 570 CE, the Prophet Muhammad is born in Mecca, marking a pivotal turning point in Arabian history.

King Khosrow I of Persia intervenes in South Arabia around this period, establishing control over Yemen and challenging Byzantine influence in the Red Sea region.

Birth and Rapid Spread of Islam

In 610 CE, Muhammad begins preaching a monotheistic faith, Islam, based on revelations compiled into the Quran, a sacred text believed by Muslims to be the verbatim word of God. Central tenets include the Five Pillars of Islam—the shahada (declaration of faith), prayer (salat), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawm), and pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).

Muhammad's teachings quickly gain followers, leading to the establishment of a unified Islamic state. After his death in 632 CE, his successors, known as caliphs, expand Islamic authority across Arabia and beyond.

Islamic Conquests and Administration

The Rashidun Caliphate rapidly expands into Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Persia. In 636 CE, under General Khalid ibn al-Walid, the Arabs decisively defeat Byzantine forces at the Battle of Yarmouk, leading to the capture of Jerusalem in 638 CE. Caliph Umar designates Jerusalem as the third holiest city in Islam, after Mecca and Medina.

Islamic forces, under Amr ibn al-As, invade Egypt in 639 CE, capturing the fortress of Babylon (Bab al-Yun) in 641 CE. Alexandria surrenders in 641 CE, and the Arabs establish a new capital at Al-Fustat (present-day Old Cairo). Under Arab rule, Coptic Christians enjoy religious autonomy, marking a stark contrast with previous Byzantine persecution.

Islamic armies enter Nubia in 642 and again in 652 CE, but the resilient Nubians force them to withdraw after an armistice. Subsequent treaties establish peaceful relations, facilitating trade and intermarriage, contributing gradually to the region's arabization.

Societal Transformation and Religious Integration

Islamic rule introduces sharia (Islamic law), governing spiritual, ethical, and social aspects of life, and defines relationships with non-Muslim communities under the dhimmi system, permitting religious freedom in exchange for taxes and political allegiance.

The conquest significantly reshapes the linguistic and cultural identity of the region. Arabic gradually supplants Greek, Aramaic, and Coptic languages, embedding Islamic culture deeply into the societal fabric.

Consolidation under the Umayyads

After the First Islamic Civil War (Fitna), Mu'awiya I founds the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 CE, establishing its capital in Damascus. Under Umayyad rule, Islamic influence extends further into North Africa, establishing the city of Kairouan in 670 CE and initiating naval confrontations with Byzantium, including early raids on Constantinople from 668 to 674 CE.

Legacy of the Age

The period 532 to 675 CE fundamentally reshapes the Near East, transforming it into a predominantly Islamic region and laying the groundwork for the expansive Islamic civilization that profoundly influences subsequent historical, religious, and cultural developments across the Mediterranean, Africa, and beyond.

Amr ibn al As, who leads the Arab army into Egypt, had been made a military commander by the Prophet himself.

Amr crosses into Egypt on December 12, 639, at Al Arish with an army of about four thousand men on horseback, armed with lances, swords, and bows.

The army's objective is the fortress of Babylon (Bab al Yun) opposite the island of Rawdah in the Nile at the apex of the Delta.

The fortress is the key to the conquest of Egypt because an advance up the Delta to Alexandria cannot be risked until the fortress is taken.

Reinforcements for the Arab army arrive in June 640, increasing Amr's forces to between eight thousand and twelve thousand men.

The Arab and imperial armies meet on the plains of Heliopolis in July.

The defending army is routed, but the results are inconclusive because the imperial troops flee to Babylon.

The fortress finally falls  to the Arabs on April 9, 641.

The Arab army now marches to Alexandria, which is not prepared to resist despite its well fortified condition.

As a consequence, the governor of Alexandria agrees to surrender, and a treaty is signed in November 641.

Constantinople breaks the treaty the following year and its forces attempt unsuccessfully to retake the city.

Muslim conquerors habitually give the people they defeat three alternatives: converting to Islam, retaining their religion with freedom of worship in return for the payment of the poll tax, or war.

The imperial forces, in surrendering to the Arab armies, agree to the second option.

The Arab conquerors treat the Egyptian Copts well.

The Copts had either remained neutral during the battle for Egypt or had actively supported the Arabs.

The Coptic patriarch is reinstated after the surrender, exiled bishops are called home, and churches that had been forcibly turned over to Constantinople's control are returned to the Copts.

Amr allows Copts who hold office to retain their positions and appoints Copts to other offices.

Amr moves the capital south to a new city called Al Fustat (present-day Old Cairo).

The mosque he builds here bears his name and still stands, although it has been much rebuilt.

The religious persecutions in Egypt and the growing pressure of taxation has engendered great hatred of Constantinople by the seventh century.

As a result, the Egyptians offer little resistance to the conquering armies of Islam.

The Arab conquest of Egypt is perhaps the most important event to occur in Egypt since the unification of the Two Lands by King Menes.

The conquest of the country by the armies of Islam under the command of the Muslim hero, Amr ibn al As, transforms Egypt from a predominantly Christian country to a Muslim country in which the Arabic language and culture are adopted even by those who cling to their Christian or Jewish faiths.

The conquest of Egypt is part of the Arab/Islamic expansion that had begun when the Prophet Muhammad died and Arab tribes began to move out of the Arabian Peninsula into Iraq and Syria.

North Africa (532–675 CE)

Byzantine Reconquest, Berber Autonomy, and the Advent of Islam

Tribal Dynamics and Regional Fragmentation

During the sixth and seventh centuries CE, the decline of Byzantine authority in North Africa was closely paralleled—and in many areas caused—by the rise and consolidation of independent Berber and nomadic tribal confederations, each shaping distinct regional dynamics.

In the rugged Aurès Mountains of northeastern Algeria, indigenous Berber groups consistently asserted autonomy. These Aurès tribes, leveraging their mountainous terrain, effectively resisted successive attempts at control by Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines alike, symbolizing sustained tribal independence.

Across the Numidian highlands and mountainous interiors, the Austoriani and Leutae (Levathae) Berber groups became increasingly assertive. Frequently clashing with Byzantine garrisons, these tribes challenged imperial control and contributed directly to widespread rural instability and territorial fragmentation, progressively undermining Byzantine administrative effectiveness.

Further to the south and southwest, in the semi-arid hinterlands of southwestern Tunisia and southeastern Algeria—regions collectively known as Arzugitana—the Arzuges emerged as influential pastoral nomads. These tribes, predominantly camel-herders, capitalized on the weakened Byzantine military presence, regularly disrupting rural settlements and trade routes, thus deepening economic instability and rural impoverishment.

Westward, toward the interior of present-day Algeria, the powerful tribal confederation known as the Laguatan (Laguantan) gained prominence during this period. Particularly aggressive, the Laguatan staged frequent raids into Byzantine-held territories, notably in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, significantly destabilizing imperial frontier defenses and accelerating Byzantine administrative withdrawal from extensive interior areas.

The Cabaon and Alatava tribes, though smaller in scale, similarly contributed to regional fragmentation, inhabiting and controlling smaller, strategically important inland territories. Their periodic resistance and raids accentuated the mosaic of independent tribal authority that typified much of inland North Africa at this time.

In Cyrenaica and eastern Tripolitania, the ancient Nasamones, historically prominent since classical antiquity, continued to hold local influence. Though somewhat diminished politically, their presence underscored the persistence of indigenous identities and tribal governance structures in eastern North Africa, frequently challenging the legitimacy of imperial administrative rule.

Across the wider region, the broad term Libyans, as used by Byzantine sources, referred collectively to the indigenous Berber populations resisting centralized imperial control. This generalized term indicates the breadth and depth of tribal resistance and the widespread erosion of imperial authority during late antiquity.

Further south, across the Sahara, Tuareg tribes retained control of vital trans-Saharan trade networks. While less involved directly in coastal politics, the Tuareg’s dominance over desert trade profoundly influenced economic conditions and trade dependencies of the coastal cities. Their control of commerce routes thus shaped regional economies, underscoring the interconnected nature of coastal prosperity and inland desert dynamics.

Overall, these tribal groups vividly illustrate North Africa’s profound regional fragmentation, cultural continuity, and the complex human geography of late antiquity. Their increasing autonomy, assertive military actions, and economic roles directly contributed to the decline of Byzantine governance, setting the stage for the transformative Arab-Islamic period that followed.

Byzantine Reconquest and Imperial Restoration (532–565 CE)

In 533 CE, the Byzantine general Belisarius, under orders from Emperor Justinian I in Constantinople, lands in North Africa with approximately sixteen thousand soldiers. Within a year, Belisarius decisively destroys the Vandal Kingdom, reestablishing Roman imperial authority. This swift campaign ends a century of Vandal rule, during which the Vandals had maintained a warrior caste exploiting the region economically but largely leaving civil administration to Roman elites.

However, local opposition significantly delays full Byzantine control, prolonging conflict for another twelve years. Even after consolidation, Byzantine governance in North Africa proves significantly weaker than classical Roman administration. Despite constructing an impressive series of fortifications, Byzantine rule suffers from official corruption, military ineffectiveness, administrative incompetence, and a noticeable lack of interest from distant Constantinople. Consequently, many rural areas revert quickly to autonomous Berber rule, limiting effective imperial governance primarily to fortified coastal cities and regions.

Berber Autonomy and Weakening Byzantine Control (566–639 CE)

Following Emperor Justinian’s death in 565 CE, the Byzantine hold over North Africa steadily deteriorates. The distant imperial administration is preoccupied with pressing threats elsewhere, exacerbating administrative neglect and corruption in African provinces. Byzantine-controlled areas, notably in Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, become heavily militarized, resembling armed camps under unpopular governors imposing burdensome taxes to support military expenditures. Meanwhile, urban infrastructure—such as water systems, public services, and commercial facilities—declines significantly due to neglect.

Despite the steady erosion of imperial authority, Byzantine presence prolongs the Roman ideal of imperial unity in North Africa and prevents complete Berber ascendancy along coastal regions. However, effective Byzantine control shrinks predominantly to coastal cities such as Carthage, Leptis Magna, and Caesarea (Cherchell), while rural and interior regions largely revert to autonomous Berber chieftains.

Early Arab Incursions and Islamic Expansion (640–675 CE)

The arrival of Islam in North Africa, propagated by Arab armies and traders, profoundly reshapes the region’s religious, cultural, and social landscape. In contrast to previous invasions, the introduction of Islam proves transformative, gradually penetrating almost all aspects of society. Despite its eventual dominance, Islamization and Arabization are gradual, complex processes, with many local customs persisting alongside new Islamic social norms and political structures.

Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, Islamic armies rapidly expand from the Arabian Peninsula into surrounding regions. Arab commander 'Amr ibn al-'As advances from Egypt into Cyrenaica and subsequently into Tripolitania, capturing isolated Byzantine garrisons along the coast and consolidating Arab rule by the mid-640s.

Further westward expansion proves slower and more challenging. In 663 CE, the Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi invades the interior region of Fezzan, capturing Germa. However, stiff Berber resistance in Tripolitania initially halts further Arab advance. It is only with strategic necessity—recognizing North Africa’s importance in controlling the Mediterranean—that the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from Damascus after 661 CE, initiates a systematic conquest of the Maghreb.

In 670 CE, Uqba ibn Nafi founds the strategic military base at Kairouan (Al Qayrawan), approximately 160 kilometers south of modern Tunis, to anchor further military campaigns. From Kairouan, Arab forces stage relentless assaults on Byzantine-held territories, significantly undermining Byzantine control.

Byzantine governance in Tripolitania becomes increasingly tenuous, confined mostly to heavily fortified coastal towns, farms, and watchtowers. The rural populace, having turned to tribal chieftains during prior periods of neglect under the Vandals and Byzantines, fiercely resists reincorporation into the imperial administrative framework, further facilitating Arab expansion.

Conclusion: Cultural Transformation and Strategic Realignment

By the close of 675 CE, North Africa is fundamentally transformed. Byzantine power, though persisting nominally, is effectively eclipsed by ascending Arab authority. Independent Berber kingdoms assert increasing autonomy, frequently collaborating with Arab forces against Byzantine interests. Islam begins its pervasive cultural and religious influence, reshaping North African society profoundly and enduringly.

This period thus marks a critical historical juncture, initiating North Africa’s long-term transition from its Roman and Byzantine heritage toward an Islamic cultural and political identity, setting the stage for the region’s medieval trajectory.

'Amr ibn al 'As moves two years later from Cyrenaica into Tripolitania, where, by the end of the decade, the isolated imperial garrisons on the coast are overrun and Arab control of the region consolidated.

Uqba ibn Nafi, an Arab general under the ruling caliph, invades Fezzan in 663, forcing the capitulation of Germa.

Stiff Berber resistance in Tripolitania had slowed the Arab advance to the west, however, and efforts at permanent conquest are resumed only when it becomes apparent that the Maghreb can be opened up as a theater of operations in the Muslim campaign against the Roman Empire.

In 670 the Arabs surge  into the Roman province of Africa (transliterated Ifriqiya in Arabic; present-day Tunisia), where Uqba founds the city of Kairouan (present-day Al Qayrawan) as a military base for an assault on Byzantine-held Carthage.

 

The Prophet Muhammad and his followers have by the time of his death in 632 brought most of the tribes and towns of the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of the new monotheistic religion of Islam (literally, "submission"), which is conceived of as uniting the individual believer and society under the omnipotent will of Allah (God).

Islamic rulers therefore exercise both temporal and religious authority.

Adherents of Islam, called Muslims ("those who submit" to the will of God), collectively form the House of Islam (Dar al Islam).

Within a generation, Arab armies have carried Islam north and east from Arabia and westward into North Africa.

In 642 'Amr ibn al 'As, an Arab general under Caliph Umar I, conquers Cyrenaica, establishing his headquarters at Barce.

North Africa (628–639 CE)

Final Decades of Byzantine Rule, Intensified Berber Autonomy, and Initial Arab Inroads

Between 628 and 639 CE, Byzantine North Africa reaches a critical stage of fragmentation, significantly weakened by decades of neglect, internal corruption, and escalating tribal independence. Concurrently, early Arab incursions into the region mark the beginning of a profound shift toward Islamic dominance.

Byzantine governance remains nominally intact only within fortified coastal urban centers, most notably Carthage, Leptis Magna, and Caesarea (Cherchell). Although these cities continue modest prosperity through Mediterranean trade networks, their connection to inland regions grows increasingly tenuous, as deteriorating infrastructure and pervasive insecurity intensify rural isolation.

Heavy imperial taxation and administrative inefficiencies exacerbate local dissatisfaction, causing deepening alienation among both urban elites and rural populations. Public works, roads, and agricultural infrastructure deteriorate markedly, contributing to economic decline and widespread disenchantment with distant imperial authority.

Throughout the interior and frontier regions, powerful Berber confederations and tribes further consolidate their independence. The Aurès Mountains remain a bastion of resilient tribal autonomy, with local tribes vigorously defending their territorial independence. In the Numidian highlands, the prominent Austoriani and Leutae tribes exploit Byzantine vulnerability, expanding territories and increasing raids on Byzantine-held rural settlements.

To the southwest, in the expansive region of Arzugitana, pastoral Arzuges tribes intensify their territorial control, disrupting Byzantine agricultural productivity and trade routes. Meanwhile, the aggressive Laguatan confederation continues to significantly destabilize Byzantine territories in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica through persistent raids, undermining coastal defense and communication lines, further eroding imperial territorial cohesion.

Smaller Berber groups, such as the Cabaon and Alatava, similarly fortify localized autonomy within fragmented interior regions, frequently challenging imperial outposts. In eastern North Africa, the historical presence of the Nasamones underscores persistent indigenous continuity and local governance independent of weakening Byzantine administration.

Collectively labeled as "Libyans" by Byzantine officials, these diverse indigenous groups symbolize the region-wide trend toward decentralized political structures, widespread indigenous resistance, and profound territorial fragmentation.

In the Saharan interior, Tuareg tribes maintain control over critical trans-Saharan trade routes, influencing economic and strategic dynamics of coastal regions. Their dominance ensures sustained yet fragile connectivity between coastal economic centers and Saharan trade, reflecting complex regional interdependencies.

Amid this extensive fragmentation, a new external dynamic emerges. In 639 CE, Arab-Islamic forces under the command of 'Amr ibn al-'As launch initial incursions from recently conquered Egypt into Cyrenaica and subsequently advance toward Tripolitania. Though initially limited in scale, these Arab expeditions rapidly capture isolated Byzantine outposts along the coast, signaling a major strategic shift that threatens remaining Byzantine control.

Culturally, orthodox Christianity retains strongholds within urban centers but increasingly struggles against regional instability and tribal autonomy. In contrast, rural and Berber-controlled territories exhibit localized religious and cultural traditions, increasingly detached from imperial norms.

By the end of 639 CE, Byzantine authority in North Africa appears severely weakened and increasingly untenable. With powerful Berber confederations and tribal groups firmly in control of interior and rural regions, coupled with early Arab advances from the east, the region stands poised on the brink of significant political and cultural transformation. The next decades will decisively reshape North Africa, heralding its gradual transition into the Islamic era.