Atlantic West Europe: Dynastic Struggles and Shifting Alliances (1420–1431)

The period 1420–1431 of the Upper Late Medieval Age (1396–1539) in Atlantic West Europe is dominated by intensified warfare, shifting political alliances, and deepening economic disruption. Yet, amid these crises, cultural and technological innovation continue, reflecting both resilience and adaptation within the region.

Political and Military Developments

The years 1420–1431 witness some of the most severe phases of the Hundred Years' War and the ongoing Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War. The Treaty of Troyes (1420) drastically alters the political landscape, designating Henry V of England as heir to the French crown, and effectively disinheriting the Dauphin Charles (later Charles VII). This agreement escalates conflict, solidifying English dominance over northern France, including Paris. The pivotal event is the rise of Joan of Arc (1429), whose intervention at the Siege of Orléans significantly shifts momentum back to the French side. Joan’s capture (1430) and subsequent execution (1431) by pro-English authorities further inflame the conflict but also galvanize French national sentiment.

Economic Developments

Continuous warfare severely disrupts economic stability, with trade routes frequently obstructed and agricultural productivity hampered by conflict. Nevertheless, the Atlantic coastal cities—particularly Bruges, Ghent, and increasingly, Antwerp—adapt to wartime conditions by diversifying trade and strengthening their local markets. Efforts to circumvent the economic impact of war lead merchants to seek alternate trade networks, notably deepening relations with Italian city-states and northern German towns within the Hanseatic League.

Cultural and Artistic Trends

Despite political turmoil, the region experiences significant cultural growth. Burgundian patronage remains robust, further enriching court life and stimulating artistic innovations. Flemish masters, such as Jan van Eyck, elevate panel painting to new artistic heights, exemplified by masterpieces like the Ghent Altarpiece (1432, begun earlier), which introduces unprecedented realism and technical mastery. Simultaneously, literary culture continues to flourish, with notable advances in chronicles and historical writing, capturing the era's complex political narratives.

Technological and Societal Changes

Technological innovation in this period centers primarily around warfare, including advancements in artillery and fortifications. Such military developments significantly alter siege warfare strategies. Meanwhile, society grows increasingly stratified between urban elites—who consolidate wealth and political influence—and rural populations who disproportionately bear the hardships of prolonged conflict. Yet, the struggles also encourage the growth of civic governance in cities such as Ghent and Bruges, further solidifying urban autonomy.

Long-term Consequences and Significance

This era solidifies critical shifts in the power dynamics of Atlantic West Europe. Joan of Arc’s brief yet impactful intervention dramatically reorients French national identity and morale, while English ambitions reach their territorial high point before beginning a gradual decline. The cultural and artistic achievements of the Burgundian Netherlands, exemplified by Jan van Eyck, set the stage for a flourishing Flemish Renaissance.

Ultimately, 1420–1431 underscores Atlantic West Europe's resilience amid profound dynastic and military struggles, laying foundations for future political, cultural, and economic recovery and advancement.

Scottish Reinforcements Arrive in France: Buchan and Douglas Strengthen the Dauphin’s Cause (1424)

At the beginning of 1424, John Stewart, Earl of Buchan, returned to France with 6,500 additional Scottish troops to bolster the French Dauphin Charles VII’s forces against the Anglo-Burgundian alliance. Accompanying him was Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas, one of Scotland’s most powerful noblemen, bringing military expertise and political weight to the Scottish intervention in France.

I. Composition of the Scottish Reinforcements

• The army totaled 6,500 men, consisting of:
  • 2,500 men-at-arms (heavily armored cavalry and foot soldiers).
  • 4,000 longbowmen, renowned for their skill in warfare.
• This was a significant reinforcement, as the Scottish-French alliance had already been pivotal at the Battle of Baugé (1421), where the Scots inflicted England’s first major defeat since Agincourt.

II. Arrival at Bourges and the Boost to the Dauphin’s Cause (April 24, 1424)

• On April 24, 1424, the Scottish army entered Bourges, where they were received at the Dauphin’s court.
• Their arrival raised the spirits of Charles VII, who had been struggling to maintain resistance against the English forces led by John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford.
• The reinforcements gave Charles VII renewed confidence, reinforcing the Franco-Scottish military cooperation.

III. The Importance of Buchan and Douglas in the War

• John Stewart, Earl of Buchan, had already proven himself a capable leader at Baugé, and his return signaled Scotland’s ongoing commitment to the French cause.
• Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas, was among the most influential nobles in Scotland, lending prestige and leadership to the campaign.
• Their presence strengthened Franco-Scottish military operations, paving the way for further engagements against the English.

IV. Consequences and the Next Phase of the War

• The Scottish troops would soon engage the English again, leading to the Battle of Verneuil (August 17, 1424)—a brutal confrontation that would test the resilience of the Franco-Scottish alliance.
• The Dauphin’s forces were now reinforced, making him more capable of resisting the English advance.

The arrival of Buchan and Douglas in France in 1424 reinforced Scotland’s commitment to the French cause, giving Charles VII the military support needed to continue his struggle against the English occupation of France.

Jean Gerson, former chancellor of the University of Paris, after returning in 1419 from the Tyrol to France,  had gone to Lyon, where his brother was prior of the Celestine monastery.

Although Gerson is retired from active university life, the past decade at Lyon has been a time of great literary productivity.

He has produced a harmony of the gospels (the Monotesseron), works on the poems of the bible climaxing in a massive collection of twelve treatises on the Magnificat (Lk. 1:46-55), a commentary on the Song of Songs, as well as an extensive literary correspondence with members of the Carthusian order and others on mysticism and other issues of spiritual life.

Shortly before his death at sixty-five on July 12, 1429, he produces a tract in support of Joan of Arc.

The Siege of Orléans (1428–1429) and Joan of Arc’s Triumph

In 1428, John, Duke of Bedford, the English regent of France, ordered an unrelenting siege of Orléans, a key stronghold of the Dauphin Charles (the future Charles VII of France). At the time, Charles, Duke of Orléans, the city's rightful ruler, was a prisoner in England, leaving his territory vulnerable.

The French garrison held out for eight months, enduring continuous assaults and severe deprivation. However, in May 1429, the arrival of Joan of Arc, a deeply religious peasant girl claiming divine guidance, transformed the battle.

In just eight days, her forces lifted the siege, securing one of the most decisive victories in the Hundred Years’ War. This triumph earned her the legendary title “The Maid of Orléans.”

I. The English Siege and French Resistance (1428–1429)

• The English, led by Thomas Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, laid siege to Orléans in October 1428, aiming to cut off the Dauphin’s last major stronghold on the Loire River.
• The city's rightful ruler, Charles, Duke of Orléans, was a prisoner, weakening French morale.
• The French defenders, outnumbered and undersupplied, held out for eight months, hoping for reinforcements.

II. The Arrival of Joan of Arc (April–May 1429)

• In early 1429, Joan of Arc convinced Charles VII** that she was divinely chosen to save France.
• Granted command of an army, she marched to Orléans in April 1429, bringing fresh troops and renewed morale.
• On May 4, 1429, Joan led an attack on the English fortifications, and by May 8, the siege was broken.
• Her unexpected success shattered English confidence and turned the tide of the war in favor of Charles VII.

III. Jean de Dunois, “The Bastard of Orléans”

• Among Joan’s key commanders was Jean, Comte de Dunois, an illegitimate son of the murdered Louis, Duke of Orléans.
• A loyal supporter of the Dauphin, Dunois helped organize and execute the counteroffensive that drove out the English.
• His bravery at Orléans earned him the title “The Bastard of Orléans,” and he would go on to become one of Charles VII’s most important generals.

IV. Consequences: A Turning Point in the Hundred Years’ War

• The lifting of the siege marked the beginning of the French resurgence, shifting momentum away from English domination.
• Joan of Arc’s victory at Orléans revitalized French morale, paving the way for Charles VII’s coronation in Reims (1429).
• Dunois continued to play a key role in France’s military successes, ultimately helping to drive the English out of France.

The Siege of Orléans (1428–1429) was one of the most defining moments of the Hundred Years’ War, as Joan of Arc’s leadership and Dunois’ military prowess turned the tide in favor of the Dauphin Charles VII, ensuring the survival of the French monarchy.

The Creation of the Order of the Golden Fleece (1429): Burgundy’s Chivalric Legacy

In 1429, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, renowned for his patronage of chivalry, culture, and the arts, established the Order of the Golden Fleece, one of the most prestigious secular chivalric orders in European history.

Designed to promote knightly ideals and strengthen Burgundian power, the order was first awarded in 1429 and quickly became a symbol of prestige and loyalty within the Burgundian court.

I. The Founding of the Order

• Philip the Good founded the Order of the Golden Fleece on January 10, 1429, in Bruges, during his marriage to Isabella of Portugal.
• The order was intended to rival other European chivalric institutions, such as the English Order of the Garter and the French Order of Saint Michael.
• Originally, membership was limited to 24 knights, but this number was later expanded as the order grew in prestige.

II. Symbolism and Purpose

• The Golden Fleece was chosen as the symbol of the order, referencing:
  • The mythological fleece sought by Jason and the Argonauts, symbolizing glory and heroism.
  • The flourishing wool trade in Burgundy and Flanders, representing economic power.
• The order reinforced Burgundian authority, binding Philip’s most loyal vassals and nobles to his rule.
• It also promoted knightly values, including piety, loyalty, and martial excellence.

III. The Order’s Legacy

• The Order of the Golden Fleece became one of the most prestigious orders of knighthood in Europe, surviving the fall of the Burgundian state.
• After the Habsburgs inherited Burgundy, the order was passed down through the Spanish and Austrian branches of the Habsburg dynasty, maintaining its elite status.
• Even today, the order exists in both Austrian and Spanish branches, continuing its tradition of exclusivity and prestige.

IV. Conclusion: A Lasting Symbol of Burgundian Chivalry

Philip the Good’s creation of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1429 was both a political and cultural achievement, strengthening Burgundian influence while celebrating the ideals of medieval knighthood. The order’s survival across centuries is a testament to its enduring legacy as one of the highest honors of European chivalry.

Joan of Arc’s Early Life and Her Journey to the French Court (1429)

By early 1429, nearly all of northern France and parts of the southwest were under Anglo-Burgundian control. The English controlled Paris and Rouen, while the Burgundians held Reims, the traditional coronation site of French kings since 816.

Neither Henry VI of England nor Charles VII of France had yet been officially crowned, making Reims a key symbolic and political objective. Meanwhile, the English siege of Orléans, begun in 1428, threatened one of the last strongholds still loyal to Charles VII.

As the French cause appeared increasingly desperate, a peasant girl from Domrémy, Joan of Arc, began her journey into history, claiming she was sent by God to liberate France and bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation.

I. Joan of Arc’s Early Life and Divine Visions

• Joan was born in Domrémy, a loyalist French village within the Duchy of Bar, to Jacques d’Arc and Isabelle Romée.
• Her family owned around fifty acres (twenty hectares) of land, and her father also served as a village official, collecting taxes and leading the local watch.
• Despite being surrounded by pro-Burgundian lands, Domrémy remained loyal to Charles VII, suffering occasional raids and at least one instance where the village was burned.
• At age thirteen, Joan began hearing "voices", which she later identified as Saint Catherine, Saint Margaret, and Saint Michael.
• These voices charged her with a divine mission:
  • Liberate France from English rule.
  • Ensure the Dauphin’s coronation at Reims.
• She kept these messages secret for several years before attempting to act upon them.

II. Joan’s First Attempts to Reach Charles VII

• At sixteen, Joan sought permission to visit the royal court at Chinon, believing she was destined to help Charles VII reclaim his kingdom.
• She asked her relative, Durand Lassois, to take her to Vaucouleurs, a nearby town where she met the garrison commander, Robert de Baudricourt.
• Baudricourt mocked her request and dismissed her.
• Joan persisted, returning in January 1429, where she gained the support of two of Baudricourt’s soldiers:
  • Jean de Metz.
  • Bertrand de Poulengy.
• These men helped arrange a second meeting with Baudricourt, where Joan made a stunning claim:
  • She predicted a French military defeat near Orléans days before messengers confirmed the news.

III. Baudricourt Grants Joan an Escort to Chinon

• Baudricourt, now convinced that Joan’s knowledge was divinely inspired, decided to support her mission.
• After confirmation of the French defeat at Orléans, he granted her an armed escort to travel to Chinon, where Charles VII resided.

IV. The Path to Reims Begins

• Joan’s journey to Chinon was the first step toward her legendary role in the Hundred Years’ War.
• Her arrival at the Dauphin’s court would soon lead to her recognition as a divinely guided leader, culminating in her decisive role in lifting the Siege of Orléans in May 1429.

Joan of Arc’s persistent faith and determination in early 1429 set in motion events that would change the course of the war, transforming her from an unknown peasant girl into France’s most iconic military heroine.

Joan of Arc’s Journey to Chinon and Her Theological Examination (1429)

After receiving an armed escort from Robert de Baudricourt, Joan of Arc undertook a perilous journey westward to Chinon, traveling through Burgundian-held territory disguised as a male soldier. This disguise, a practical safety measure suggested by her supporters in Vaucouleurs, would later become one of the charges against her during her trial.

Upon reaching the Royal Court at Chinon, she impressed Charles VII in a private audience, offering him hope when his cause seemed near collapse. However, before allowing her to lead troops to relieve the siege of Orléans, Charles ordered a theological inquiry at Poitiers to verify her orthodoxy and legitimacy, ensuring she could not be dismissed as a heretic or sorceress.

I. Joan’s Dangerous Journey to Chinon (February–March 1429)

• Joan traveled through hostile Burgundian-controlled lands, a journey that took eleven days.
• She disguised herself as a male soldier, a decision made for:
  • Personal safety against enemy patrols and bandits.
  • Practicality in travel with an armed escort.
• Two members of her escort later testified that the people of Vaucouleurs had provided her with this clothingand had suggested the disguise as a necessary precaution.

II. Her Arrival at the Royal Court in Chinon (March 1429)

• Joan arrived at Chinon, where Charles VII’s court was demoralized, as his regime appeared on the verge of collapse.
• She met privately with the Dauphin, reportedly revealing knowledge only he could have known, convincing him of her divine mission.

III. The Need for Religious Verification

• Joan’s arrival reframed the Hundred Years’ War as a religious struggle, a high-risk strategy.
• Charles’ advisors worried that if her orthodoxy was questioned, his enemies could claim that his legitimacy as king was granted by the Devil.
• To protect Charles from accusations of heresy, he ordered:
  • Background inquiries into Joan’s life and character.
  • A theological examination at Poitiers, to ensure she was not a heretic or sorceress.

IV. Joan’s Military Preparation

• While awaiting the results of the investigation, Joan requested:
  • Permission to accompany the relief army to Orléans.
  • Protective armor, which was provided by the Royal government.
  • A horse, sword, banner, and other military equipment, all donated to her cause.

V. Conclusion: Joan’s Legitimacy and the Next Step Toward Orléans

• The theological inquiry at Poitiers would ultimately confirm Joan’s orthodoxy, clearing the way for her to lead troops into battle.
• Her arrival at Chinon marked the beginning of her extraordinary military campaign, transforming the French war effort and Charles VII’s legitimacy as king.

Joan of Arc’s journey to Chinon, her reception by Charles VII, and her subsequent theological examination were critical moments that solidified her role as France’s divinely inspired leader, setting the stage for her historic intervention at Orléans.

The Theological Inquiry at Poitiers and Joan of Arc’s First Test (April 1429)

In April 1429, a commission of inquiry convened in Poitiers to assess Joan of Arc’s character, morality, and claims of divine inspiration. The theologians did not explicitly confirm her divine mission, but they determined that she was a good and virtuous Christian, free from heresy or sorcery.

Rather than making a definitive ruling on her divine guidance, the commission concluded that there was a "favorable presumption" in support of her mission. This verdict was sufficient for Charles VII, who was desperate for a miraculous intervention in the war.

However, the theologians also insisted that Joan must be put to the test—her claims would only be validated if she succeeded in lifting the siege of Orléans.

I. The Poitiers Inquiry: Evaluating Joan’s Orthodoxy

• The theologians examined Joan’s background, character, and religious devotion, searching for any signs of heresy or fraud.
• They did not directly confirm her divine inspiration, but they found no reason to doubt her piety and sincerity.
• The commission concluded that Joan was a "good and virtuous Christian", ruling out any suspicion of heresy or demonic influence.

II. The Conditional Approval of Joan’s Mission

• Instead of a direct endorsement, the theologians stated:
  • There was a "favorable presumption" that Joan’s mission was from God.
  • Charles VII had a holy obligation to test her claims before fully accepting her as divinely guided.
• The only way to prove her legitimacy was through military success.

III. The Test: The Relief of Orléans

• The theologians declared that Joan’s first test would be the lifting of the siege of Orléans.
• If she succeeded, it would be seen as confirmation of divine favor.
• If she failed, then her mission—and Charles VII’s faith in her—would be discredited.

IV. The Importance of the Decision

• The commission's ruling gave Charles VII the confidence to allow Joan to lead troops, while also protecting him from accusations of relying on a heretic or fraud.
• The siege of Orléans became a defining moment—if Joan triumphed, she would prove herself to the court, the clergy, and the people of France.

The Poitiers inquiry of April 1429 provided cautious but crucial approval of Joan of Arc, setting the stage for her defining moment at Orléans, where she would prove herself through action rather than words.

Joan of Arc and the Lifting of the Siege of Orléans (April 29 – May 8, 1429)

On April 29, 1429, Joan of Arc arrived at Orléans, a city that had been under English siege for five months and was on the verge of collapse. Though Jean d’Orléans, Count of Dunois, initially excluded her from war councils, Joan’s presence and spiritual leadership soon became a turning point in the siege.

Within days of her arrival, the French forces, inspired by Joan, launched a series of offensives that culminated in the capture of Les Tourelles on May 7 and the complete retreat of the English on May 8. This unexpected victory transformed Joan’s reputation, convincing many that she was divinely sent to save France.

I. Joan’s Arrival and Initial Exclusion from Military Decisions

• Jean d’Orléans (the Bastard of Orléans), acting head of the ducal family, initially kept Joan out of military councils.
• Despite this, Joan was present at most discussions and battles, and many noble commanders followed her advice, believing it was divinely inspired.
• Joan later stated that she carried her banner in battle rather than wielding a sword, claiming she never killed anyone.
• Historians debate the extent of her direct military leadership, but agree that the army experienced unprecedented success during her time with it.

II. The French Counteroffensive Begins (May 4–7, 1429)

1. Capture of Saint-Loup (May 4, 1429)

• The Armagnacs launched their first major attack, seizing the English outpost at Saint-Loup, marking a decisive shift in the siege.

2. Capture of Les Augustins and Skirmishes (May 5–6, 1429)

• The French forces marched on Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, finding it deserted.
• English troops emerged but were driven back by a rapid cavalry charge.
• The Armagnacs attacked and captured Les Augustins, another key English fortification.

3. Assault on Les Tourelles (May 7, 1429)

• Les Tourelles, the main English stronghold on the south bank of the Loire, was the final obstacle to breaking the siege.
• During the battle, Joan was wounded by an arrow between her neck and shoulder, but returned later in the day to rally the troops.
• Her presence inspired the final assault, which overwhelmed the English defenders and secured the fortress.

III. The English Retreat and the End of the Siege (May 8, 1429)

• With Les Tourelles lost, the English forces retreated from Orléans on May 8.
• The siege was broken, marking the first major French victory in years.

IV. Joan’s Prophecy Fulfilled: A Divine Sign?

• At Chinon and Poitiers, Joan had declared she would provide a sign—her success at Orléans was widely seen as divine proof of her mission.
• Prominent clergy, including the Archbishop of Embrun and theologian Jean Gerson, wrote treatises in support of her after the victory.
• The lifting of the siege boosted Charles VII’s legitimacy and paved the way for his coronation at Reims.

V. Consequences and the Path to Reims

• The victory at Orléans marked a turning point in the Hundred Years’ War, as Joan’s leadership reinvigorated the French cause.
• Her next objective was to bring Charles VII to Reims for his long-delayed coronation, further strengthening his claim to the French throne.

The lifting of the Siege of Orléans (April–May 1429) was the defining moment in Joan of Arc’s early military career, fulfilling her prophecy and transforming the course of the Hundred Years’ War.

The Aftermath of Orléans: Joan of Arc’s Plan to Reclaim the Loire and Reach Reims (1429)

The unexpected French victory at Orléans (May 8, 1429) dramatically shifted the momentum of the Hundred Years’ War, leading to widespread calls for further offensive action.

Joan of Arc, capitalizing on her growing influence at court, successfully persuaded Charles VII to approve her bold strategy—recapturing key bridges along the Loire as a prelude to an advance on Reims for his long-awaited coronation.

This audacious plan was unexpected, as the English anticipated an attack on Paris or Normandy. Instead, Joan aimed directly at Reims, deep in enemy territory, demonstrating her confidence in divine guidance and her ability to inspire the French army.

I. Joan Gains Royal Approval for the Loire Campaign

• After Orléans, Joan pressed Charles VII to act quickly before English forces could regroup.
• She proposed a calculated strategy:
  • Recapturing key Loire River bridges to secure a path toward Reims.
  • Proceeding with Charles VII to Reims, where French kings had traditionally been crowned since 816.
• Charles VII agreed and granted her permission to accompany the army, under the command of Duke Jean II of Alençon.

II. A Bold and Unexpected Move

• Reims was deep in enemy-controlled territory, roughly twice as far away as Paris.
• The English and their Burgundian allies assumed Joan’s forces would strike at Paris or Normandy.
• Instead, her focus on Reims demonstrated her strategic vision, as securing the city would legitimize Charles VII’s rule and rally more French support.

III. Growing Support from French Commanders

• The Duke of Alençon fully embraced Joan’s strategic advice, working closely with her in planning the campaign.
• Other commanders, including Jean d’Orléans (the Bastard of Orléans), who had initially doubted her, now became her supporters after witnessing her effectiveness in battle.

IV. Consequences: The Path to Reims Begins

• With royal approval and growing support among the military, Joan’s army prepared for the Loire campaign, marking the beginning of one of the most remarkable military advances in the war.
• The success of this strategy would culminate in Charles VII’s coronation at Reims in July 1429, a moment that transformed the course of French history.

Joan of Arc’s plan to reclaim the Loire bridges and push toward Reims was a masterstroke, surprising the English, rallying the French, and setting the stage for Charles VII’s legitimacy as king.