Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1684–1695 CE): Recovery, Reorientation, and Continued Challenges

The era 1684–1695 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by gradual recovery from previous calamities, persistent economic constraints, and significant shifts in governance, culture, and intellectual life.

Spain: End of Epidemic and Ongoing Challenges

In Spain, the prolonged plague epidemic finally subsides by 1685, having claimed over 250,000 lives. Although the epidemic’s end brings relief, Spain remains economically debilitated, weighed down by continued fiscal burdens, internal political stagnation, and the persistent after-effects of prolonged warfare under the declining Habsburg dynasty. Despite minor attempts at reform, Spain struggles to regain its earlier status as a dominant European power.

Italy: Cultural Renewal Amid Economic Difficulties

Under continued foreign influence, particularly from Spain, Italy experiences an incremental yet notable revival. States such as Venice and Florence actively pursue fresh commercial and diplomatic ventures, striving to counteract economic setbacks caused by shifting trade routes. Venice, in particular, strengthens its role as a hub for early Enlightenment thought, fostering renewed cultural activities, notably in opera, theater, and innovative architecture. Such patronage helps to sustain Italy's influential role in European cultural life, even as it faces ongoing economic challenges.

Malta: Strengthened Defenses and Improved Public Health

In Malta, the Knights Hospitaller significantly enhance the island's resilience following the catastrophic plague of 1675–1676. Valletta emerges with improved fortifications and renowned medical institutions, particularly the prestigious Sacra Infermeria, which sets a standard for advanced public health and quarantine practices. These developments position Malta as a notable center of medical expertise, providing crucial defenses against future epidemics.

Intellectual and Cultural Shifts

Throughout Mediterranean Southwest Europe, intellectual and cultural life remains vibrant, increasingly shaped by Enlightenment ideals. The arrival of coffee via Venetian commerce with the Ottoman Empire symbolizes widening cultural exchanges and expanding global trade. Intellectual circles embrace more rigorous empirical observation and rational inquiry, fueling debates on governance and social reforms. Meanwhile, the commedia dell'arte remains popular, reflecting and shaping societal attitudes while influencing theater traditions throughout Europe.

Legacy of an Era

Thus, the era 1684–1695 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe represents both a conclusion to a period marked by epidemic and economic crisis and a tentative beginning of broader transformations. Improved public health measures, revitalized cultural patronage, and a gradual intellectual turn towards modernity indicate significant steps toward the developments of the eighteenth century.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1696–1707 CE): Dynastic Shifts and Cultural Innovations

The era 1696–1707 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is shaped by significant dynastic changes, intensified political struggles, and vibrant cultural developments that lay critical foundations for the eighteenth century.

Spain: The End of the Habsburg Dynasty and Succession Crisis

In Spain, the death of Charles II in 1700 marks the end of the Spanish Habsburg line. Severely affected by generations of intermarriage, Charles II's inability to produce an heir triggers a major succession crisis. Despite Habsburg claims, Charles II wills the throne to his grand-nephew, Philip of Anjou, a Bourbon and grandson of Louis XIV of France. Philip ascends as Philip V (1700–1746), igniting fears across Europe of a Franco-Spanish union. The resulting tensions erupt into the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714), the first significant European conflict of global scale.

An Anglo-Austrian coalition opposes Bourbon control, supporting Archduke Charles of Austria. Although Castile warmly accepts Philip, Catalonia resists Bourbon centralization, aligning with the Austrians to defend their traditional liberties (fueros). This internal division underscores deep-seated tensions between centralized monarchy and regional autonomy, significantly impacting Spain's internal political landscape.

Italy: Papal Reforms and Cultural Vibrancy

In Italy, the pontificate of Pope Innocent XII (Antonio Pignatelli, 1691–1700) emphasizes moral and administrative reform. Innocent XII vigorously combats nepotism with his landmark bull, Romanum decet Pontificem (1692), promoting meritocracy and austere governance. His successor, Pope Clement XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani, 1700–1721), assumes leadership during turbulent times, navigating between French and Austrian interests amid the Spanish succession turmoil.

This period also witnesses key cultural innovations. In Florence, the invention of the piano by Bartolomeo Cristofori around 1700 revolutionizes musical expression and performance. The vibrant cultural scene continues in cities like Venice and Rome, nurturing the arts, architecture, and opera, even as political uncertainties loom.

Malta: Strategic Consolidation and Medical Leadership

Malta continues its strategic consolidation under the Knights Hospitaller, significantly expanding and fortifying Valletta. Following the previous era's medical advancements, Malta solidifies its reputation in public health through continued improvements at the renowned Sacra Infermeria. These developments enhance Malta's resilience against health crises, reinforcing its strategic importance and cultural sophistication in the Mediterranean.

Broader Cultural and Intellectual Shifts

Throughout Mediterranean Southwest Europe, the influence of the early Enlightenment grows steadily. The ongoing influx of global commodities like coffee, introduced through Venetian commerce with the Ottoman Empire, continues to fuel vibrant intellectual exchanges in coffeehouses across the region. Moreover, theatrical traditions, notably the commedia dell'arte, remain influential, reflecting broader social themes and artistic creativity.

Legacy and Transformation

The era 1696–1707 CE thus represents a dynamic period of dynastic transition, cultural innovation, and intellectual ferment. Spain's succession crisis reshapes European diplomacy, while Italy and Malta experience cultural and strategic advancements. Collectively, these developments set the stage for pivotal transformations in the coming decades.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1708–1719 CE): War's Resolution and Territorial Realignments

The era 1708–1719 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by the conclusion of the significant War of the Spanish Succession, territorial realignments, and the reshaping of political and cultural landscapes across the region.

Spain: Resolution and New Realities

The War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714), initially triggered by the accession of the Bourbon Philip V to the Spanish throne, reaches a decisive conclusion. Despite British and Austrian support for the Habsburg claimant, Archduke Charles of Austria, Philip V's position in Castile remains solid. However, fierce resistance continues in Catalonia, which steadfastly defends its traditional liberties (fueros) against centralizing Bourbon policies. The prolonged and devastating Siege of Barcelona (1713–1714) ultimately forces Catalonia into submission, significantly altering its autonomy and integrating it more directly into a centralized Spanish state.

The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) formally ends the broader European conflict, confirming the Bourbon succession in Spain under the condition that the French and Spanish crowns never unite. This treaty profoundly impacts Spain’s international standing, as it loses substantial European territories: the Spanish Netherlands (subsequently known as the Austrian Netherlands) and its significant Italian possessions revert to Austrian Habsburg control. Britain solidifies its Mediterranean presence by retaining Gibraltar and Menorca, gaining crucial trade concessions in Spanish America. Although Spain maintains internal cohesion and its vast overseas empire, its role in European power dynamics diminishes considerably.

Italy: Shifting Influence and Cultural Continuity

In Italy, territorial shifts reshape the peninsula’s political landscape. Following the Treaty of Utrecht, significant territories such as Naples, Milan, and Sardinia come under Austrian rule. These changes reinforce Austrian influence over Italy, altering power dynamics among Italian states, which increasingly become strategic pawns in broader European diplomacy.

Despite political upheaval, Italy continues to flourish culturally. Cities like Venice and Rome sustain vibrant artistic and intellectual environments, where opera, painting, and architecture thrive amid international political shifts. Intellectual circles increasingly reflect early Enlightenment ideals, encouraging reason, scientific inquiry, and social reform, laying foundations for significant future cultural movements.

Malta: Strategic Consolidation and Stability

Malta remains a crucial Mediterranean stronghold under the governance of the Knights Hospitaller. The fortification of Valletta is further enhanced, strengthening the island’s strategic value amid shifting European alliances. Maltese medical institutions, notably the Sacra Infermeria, gain further prominence for their advanced healthcare standards, continuing Malta’s legacy as a medical leader in Europe.

Broader Regional Implications

Across Mediterranean Southwest Europe, the aftermath of the War of the Spanish Succession reshapes political alliances, territorial boundaries, and strategic priorities. Britain emerges as a significant Mediterranean maritime power, while Austria extends its influence into formerly Spanish territories. These realignments establish a new balance of power, significantly affecting regional stability and setting the stage for future geopolitical developments.

Conclusion: Foundations of a New Order

The era 1708–1719 CE marks a turning point for Mediterranean Southwest Europe, characterized by the resolution of the War of the Spanish Succession, significant territorial changes, and continuing cultural vibrancy. These developments decisively shape the political and cultural trajectory of the region, laying critical groundwork for subsequent eighteenth-century transformations.

The Treaty of Leoben gives France control of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries, and a secret clause promises the Republic of Venice to Austria.